Industria Textila˘ ISSN 1222–5347 4/2017 Editatã în 6 nr./an, indexatã ºi recenzatã în: Edited in 6 issues per year, indexed and abstracted in: Revistã cotatã ISI ºi inclusã în Master Journal List a Institutului pentru Science Citation Index Expanded (SciSearch®), Materials Science ªtiinþa Informãrii din Philadelphia – S.U.A., începând cu vol. 58, Citation Index®, Journal Citation Reports/Science Edition, World Textile nr. 1/2007/ Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, VINITI, Scopus, Toga FIZ technik ISI rated magazine, included in the ISI Master Journal List of the Institute ProQuest Central of Science Information, Philadelphia, USA, starting with vol. 58, no. 1/2007 M. FURQAN KHURSHID, AMIR ABBAS, SARMAD ASLAM, TALHA ALI HAMDANI, USMAN ALI, FIAZ HUSSAIN COLEGIUL Analiza comparativă a proprietăților firelor Siro cu filare compactăpneumatică și cu inele 245–249 DE REDACT¸ IE: GUIZHEN KE, JIAFENG PEI, KUNDI ZHU Dr. ing. CARMEN GHIŢULEASA Prepararea și proprietățile materialelor compozite PAN/LA-SA realizate CS I – DIRECTOR GENERAL prin electrofilare 250–255 Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare SHU-QIANG LIU, GAI-HONG WU, YI CUI, HONG-XIA GUO pentru Textile şi Pielărie – Bucureşti Analiza mecanismului de finisare rezistentă la contracție asupra Dr. ing. EMILIA VISILEANU țesăturii de mătase/cânepă 256–262 CS I – EDITOR ŞEF ASIF ELAHI MANGAT, LUBOS HES, VLADIMIR BAJZIK, Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare FUNDA BUYUK, MUDASSAR ABBAS pentru Textile şi Pielărie – Bucureşti Modelul absorbției termice a tricotului patent în stare uscată și autentificarea experimentală a acestuia 263–268 Conf. univ. dr. ing. MARIANA URSACHE DECAN DANIELA NEGRU, LILIANA BUHU, EMIL LOGHIN, IONUT DULGHERIU, Facultatea de Textile-Pielărie ADRIAN BUHU şi Management Industrial, Universitatea Absorbția și transferul de umiditate prin materiale tricotate din fibre Tehnică „Ghe. Asachi“ – Iaşi naturale și artificiale 269–274 Prof. dr. GELU ONOSE TÜLAY GÜLÜMSER CS I Rolul microcapsulelor în mascarea mirosurilor neplăcute Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie ale țesăturilor de bumbac 275–282 „Carol Davila“ – Bucureşti CLAUDIA-CAMELIA BURCEA, CONSTANTIN CIUCUREL, ERHAN ÖNER COSMIN MEDAR, MARIA GLENCORA COSTACHE, LILIANA PĂDURE, Prof. dr. ing. MARIUS IVAȘCU, RĂZVAN PETCA, AIDA PETCA, LUMINIŢA GEORGESCU, Marmara University – Turcia CLAUDIA NICULESCU Prof. dr. S. MUGE YUKSELOGLU Studiu privind utilizarea materialelor textile pentru confecționarea Marmara University – Turcia saltelelor în prevenirea escarelor de decubit din cadrul sindromului de imobilizare postfracturi la pacientul vârstnic 283–288 Prof. univ. dr. DOINA I. POPESCU Academia de Studii Economice – Bucureşti E. KENAN ÇEVEN, AHMET KARAKÜÇÜK, A.EMIR DİRİK, UĞUR YALÇINEvaluarea eficacității ecranării electromagnetice a țesăturilor fabricate Prof. univ. dr. ing. CARMEN LOGHIN din fire care conțin fir metalic cu un sistem de măsurare mobil 289–295 Facultatea de Textile-Pielărie DANA VASILESCU, SABINA IONITA, EMILIA VISILEANU, VICTOR GRAMA, şi Management Industrial, Universitatea ADRIAN PELINARU, ALEXANDRU-LAUTENŢIU CHIOTOROIU Tehnică „Ghe. Asachi“ – Iaşi Pansamente moderne utilizate pentru tratamentul arsurilor majore 296–302 Prof. univ. dr. MARGARETA STELEA FLORESCU L. DIAMANDESCU, M. FEDER, F. VASILIU, L. TANASE, ARCADII SOBETKII Academia de Studii Economice – Bucureşti I. DUMITRESCU, M. TEODORESCU, T. POPESCU Prof. ing. ARISTIDE DODU Ruta hidrotermală a fotocatalizatorilor de dioxid de titan codopați Membru de onoare al Academiei de Ştiinţe cu Fe și N cu activitate sporită în lumina vizibilă 303–308 Tehnice din România VATANSEVER BAYRAMOL DERMAN LUIS ALMEIDA Răspunsul la tensiune al ţesăturii piezoelectrice din turmalinăProf. dr. ing. cu conţinut de filamente de polipropilenă 309–313 University of Minho – Portugal LUCIAN CONSTANTIN HANGANU NICOLAE DIACONU, MARIN SILVIU NAN, OLIMPIU STOICUTAProf. dr. Studiul radiației solare în contextul restructurării industriale Universitatea Tehnică „Ghe. Asachi“ – Iaşi și a necesității reducerii poluării mediului înconjurător 314–319 Dr. AMINODDIN HAJI PhD, MSc, BSc, Textile Chemistry and Fiber Science Recunoscutã în România, în domeniul ªtiinþelor inginereºti, de cãtre Assistant Professor Consiliul Naþional al Cercetãrii ªtiinþifice din Învãþãmântul Superior Textile and Art Department (C.N.C.S.I.S.), în grupa A / Islamic Azad University, Birjand Branch Aknowledged in Romania, in the engineering sciences domain, Birjand, Iran by the National Council of the Scientific Research from the Higher Education (CNCSIS), in group A industria textila˘ 243 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Contents M. FURQAN KHURSHID, AMIR ABBAS, Comparative analysis of siro yarn properties spun on ring and pneumatic compact SARMAD ASLAM, TALHA ALI HAMDANI, spinning systems 245 USMAN ALI, FIAZ HUSSAIN GUIZHEN KE, JIAFENG PEI, KUNDI ZHU Preparation and properties of electrospun PAN/LA-SA composite phase change fibers 250 SHU-QIANG LIU, GAI-HONG WU, Shrink resistant finishing and mechanism analysis on the silk/hemp fabric 256 YI CUI, HONG-XIA GUO ASIF ELAHI MANGAT, LUBOS HES, Model of thermal absorptivity of knitted rib in dry state and its experimental VLADIMIR BAJZIK, FUNDA BUYUK, authentication 263 MUDASSAR ABBAS DANIELA NEGRU, LILIANA BUHU, Absorption and moisture transfer through knitted fabrics made of natural and man-made EMIL LOGHIN, IONUT DULGHERIU, fibers 269 ADRIAN BUHU TÜLAY GÜLÜMSER The role of microcapsules in masking bad odors of cotton fabrics 275 CLAUDIA-CAMELIA BURCEA, Study on the use of textiles to manufacture mattresses in order to prevent decubitus CONSTANTIN CIUCUREL, COSMIN MEDAR, ulcers due to post-fracture immobilization syndrome in the elderly patient 283 MARIA GLENCORA COSTACHE, LILIANA PĂDURE, MARIUS IVAȘCU, RĂZVAN PETCA, AIDA PETCA, LUMINIŢA GEORGESCU, CLAUDIA NICULESCU E. KENAN ÇEVEN, AHMET KARAKÜÇÜK, Evaluation of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of fabrics produced from yarns A. EMIR DİRİK, UĞUR YALÇIN containing metal wire with a mobile based measurement system 289 DANA VASILESCU, SABINA IONITA, Alternative dressings used for treating major burns 296 EMILIA VISILEANU, VICTOR GRAMA, ADRIAN PELINARU, ALEXANDRU-LAUTENŢIU CHIOTOROIU L. DIAMANDESCU, M. FEDER, Hydrothermal route to (Fe, N) codoped titania photocatalysts with increased visible F. VASILIU, L. TANASE, light activity 303 ARCADII SOBETKII, I. DUMITRESCU, M. TEODORESCU, T. POPESCU VATANSEVER BAYRAMOL DERMAN Voltage response of piezoelectric woven fabric, made of tourmaline containing polypropylene filaments 309 NICOLAE DIACONU, MARIN SILVIU NAN, The study of the solar radiation in the context of industrial restructuring and the need to OLIMPIU STOICUTA reduce environmental pollution 314 Scientific reviewers for the papers published in this number : Faisal Siddiqui – Department of Clothing Technology, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec Czech Republic Adnan Mazari – Research Scholar at Techincal University of Liberec, Czech Republic Elena Tomovska – Institute of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University “Ss. Cyril and Methodius”, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia Ilda Kazani – Textile&Fashion Department, Faculty of Mechanic Engineering, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania H. Serap İnal – Bahcesehir University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Istanbul, Turkiye Pavla Testinova – Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Department of Textile Evaluation, Liberec, Czech Republic Carmen Mihai – The National Research and Development Institute for Textiles and Leather, Bucharest, Romania EDITORIAL STAFF Editor-in-chief: Dr. eng. Emilia Visileanu Graphic designer: Florin Prisecaru e-mail: industriatextila@certex.ro Journal edited in colaboration with Editura AGIR , 118 Calea Victoriei, sector 1, Bucharest, tel./fax: 021-316.89.92; 021-316.89.93; e-mail: editura@agir.ro, www.edituraagir.ro industria textila˘ 244 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Comparative analysis of siro yarn properties spun on ring and pneumatic compact spinning systems DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1383 M. FURQAN KHURSHID SARMAD ASLAM USMAN ALI AMIR ABBAS TALHA ALI HAMDANI FIAZ HUSSAIN REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Analiza comparativă a proprietăților firelor Siro cu filare compactă pneumatica și cu inele Scopul acestui studiu este de a investiga influența sistemului de filare compactă pneumatică (Rieter® K-44) asupra proprietăților firelor filate Siro cu densități liniare grosiere, medii și fine. În acest scop, firele filate Siro au fost filate pe sistemul de filare cu inele (RS) și filare compactă cu trei densități liniare (grosieră, medie și fină) din bumbac Pakistan. Au fost testați și analizați parametrii de calitate, cum ar fi: neregularitățile de masă (U%, CVm%, CV10m), indicele de imperfecțiune (IPI), pilozitatea și comportamentul la tracțiune al firelor filate siro și al firelor filate compacte. Rezultatele au arătat că firele Siro cu filare compactă au avut o variație mai mică a masei, o valoare IPI scăzută, pilozitate mai redusă și caracteristici de rezistență la tracțiune mai mari în comparație cu firele Siro filate cu inele. De asemenea, proprietățile firului compact Siro cu densitatea liniară grosieră, medie și fină au demonstrat că sistemul de filare compactă K-44 îmbunătățește proprietățile firelor Siro, indiferent de intervalul de densitate liniară. Cuvinte-cheie: fir Siro, fir compact Siro (K-44), parametri de calitate, densitate liniară Comparative analysis of siro yarn properties spun on ring and pneumatic compact spinning systems The aim of the present work is to investigate the influence of pneumatic compact spinning system (Rieter® K-44) on siro yarn properties with coarse, medium and fine linear densities of yarn. For this purpose, siro yarns were spun on Ring (RS) and pneumatic compact spinning system (CS) with three linear densities (coarse, medium and fine) from Pakistani cotton. The quality parameters such as mass irregularity (U%, CVm%, CV10m), imperfection index (IPI), hairiness and tensile behavior of ring spun siro and compact spun siro yarns were tested and analyzed. The results revealed that compact spun siro yarn had less mass variation, low IPI value, less hairiness and high tensile properties as compared to ring siro yarn. It is also concluded from the properties of coarse, medium and fine siro compact yarn that K-44 compact spinning system improves siro yarn properties irrespective of the linear density range. Keywords: siro yarn,compact siro yarn (K-44), quality parameters, linear density INTRODUCTION compared to conventional ring spun yarn, two ply There are various spinning techniques to spun textile yarn, vortex spun yarn, open end spun yarn and solo yarns. Every spinning technique has produced differ- spun. Fabrics made from siro yarn also have superi- ent yarn structures with different yarn properties. or abrasion resistance, high wrinkle resistance, low Ring is the leading spinning technique that spun yarn pilling tendency, high bursting strength and improved with improved properties in spite of its limitations. fastness properties (wash, rub and perspiration) as These limitations are traveler speed, balloon tension, compared to conventional ring spun yarn. Siro yarn is spindle speed and spinning triangle. These limita- cost effective as compared to folded (two ply) yarn tions are responsible for less production and hairy and there is no need to sizing in the weaving process yarn structure. Many researchers focused to improve as well [6–20]. ring yarn properties and structure by overcoming In the start of 1990s, Dr. Fehrer developed compact these limitations [1–5]. spinning by eliminating spinning triangle in conven- In the early of 1980s, Commonwealth Scientific tional ring spinning. In compact spinning, fibers International Research Organization (CSIRO) intro- assembly is condensed in the spinning triangle zone duces siro yarn with superior yarn properties. CSIRO pneumatically, magnetically and/or mechanically [5, prepared siro yarn by introducing two parallel rovings 21]. Compact spinning developed a compact yarn with a predetermined spacing in the drafted zone of structure with excellent yarn properties such as conventional ring spinning system. Then, rovings increased uniformity, less imperfections, low hairi- were twisted together to form a two ply structure with ness and superior yarn strength. Fabric made from improved yarn structure and characteristics [6–9]. compact yarn has improved tensile strength, low Siro yarn has improved structure with remarkable pilling and high abrasion resistance [1–5, 22–27]. It physical properties such as high evenness, low CV has been established to large extent that the %, less Imperfection and low hairiness and mechan- improved siro and compact yarn properties are relat- ical properties such as high tenacity, more extension, ed to change of structure such as higher mean fiber higher work of rupture and more breaking strength as position, high migration factor, and more integrated industria textila˘ 245 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 structure as compared to ring yarn structure [11–12, Table 1 15–17]. Many researchers focused to compare siro yarn properties or structure with properties of others COTTON FIBRE PROPERTIES yarns e.g. solo yarn, siro solo, vortex yarn, OE yarn and/or ring spun yarn [8–20]. Fibre properties Values± SD % The aim of the present work is to investigate the influ- Spinning Consistency Index 110 ± 6.55 ence of pneumatic compact spinning system (K-44) Fineness (mtex) 177 ± 2.1 on siro yarn properties with course, medium and fine Maturity Index 0.88 ± 0.06 yarn linear densities. The selection of wide range of Length (mm) 28.2 ± 0.9 linear densities is to determine whether the compact- Uniformity Index 83.3 ± 1.2 ing efficiency of the system is affected by handling more number of fibers in the drafting section. To the Short Fiber Index 9.13 ± 0.5 best of author’s knowledge, ring spun siro and com- Strength (cN/tex) 30 ± 0.8 pact (K-44) spun siro yarn is being compared first Elongation (%) 4.9 ± 5.6 time in this study with course, medium and fine yarn Moisture (%) 8.26 ± 0.4 linear densities. Reflectance (Rd) 72.3 ± 0.6 EXPERIMENTAL WORK Yellowness (+b) 8.7 ± 0.04 Materials and method machine (C-51), drawing breaker (SB-2), drawing fin- The Pakistani cotton was used as raw material to isher (RSB D-35) and simplex (FL-100). For the pur- spun siro yarn. Cotton were tested under standard pose of comparative analysis, all rovings were pre- atmospheric conditions (20±2 °C and 65% RH) on pared on same simplex machines and all techno- High Volume Instrument (HVI) and average results logical and kinematical parameters were kept con- are tabulated in the table 1. stant as shown in the table 2. A standard spinning setup was used to spun siro yarn Three linear densities of yarns (60tex, 30tex and on ring and compact spinning systems. For this pur- 12tex) were selected to spun siro and compact siro pose, conditioned cotton was opened and cleaned in yarn. Each siro yarn samples were spun on same the blow room section. The blow room machinery ring and K-44 compact spinning machines with simi- (Rieter) consists of UniFloc (A-11), UniClean (B-11), lar technological and kinematical parameters as UniMix (B-70) and UniFlex (B-60). Furthermore, shown in the table 2. Quality parameters such as chute feed cotton was further processed on card mass irregularity (U%, CVm%, CV10m), imperfection Table 2 TECHNOLOGICAL AND KINEMATICAL PARAMETERS OF RING AND COMPACT SIRO YARN Parameters Yarn Linear Density (tex) 60tex 30tex 12tex Delivered weight per yard of Card (grains) 110 110 70 Card Delivery rate (m/min) 228 228 160 Card Dropping % 4.5 4.5 3.2 Card Fly % 7.8 7.8 3 Breaker Doubling 5 5 6 Delivered weight per yard at Breaker 80 80 70 Breaker Delivery Rate(m/min) 374 374 380 Finisher Doubling 6 6 6 Delivered weight per yard at Finisher (grains) 75 75 60 Finisher Delivery Rate(m/min) 459 459 350 Flyer Speed (rpm) 980 980 900 Twist per meter at Roving 48 50 69 Break Draft at Roving 1.3 1.19 1.3 Roving Linear Density (tex) 881,881 514,514 348,348 Spindle Speed (rpm) 11800 13000 18000 Yarn Twist per Meter 498 676 1230 Back Draft at ring 1.36 1.29 1.35 Spacer (SKF Company) Violet Violet Red Ring Diameter (mm) 42 38 35 industria textila˘ 246 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SIRO YARN ± CV % Linear Spinning Siro Yarn Properties ± CV %Sr. Density system U CVm CV10m H IPI CLSP 01 CS 8.74 ± 1.08 11.1 ± 0.9 1.89 ± 14.07 7.54 ± 1.2 21 ± 19.3 2868 ± 2.25 60 02 RS 9.45 ± 1.41 12 ± 1.51 2.07 ± 16.65 8.51 ± 1.6 33 ± 19.9 2601 ± 2.73 03 CS 9.8 ± 1.1 12.3 ± 1.2 2.01 ± 11.2 6.8 ± 0.8 121 ± 11 2680 ± 2.5 30 04 RS 10.53 ± 1.61 13.4 ± 1.71 2.19 ± 13.64 7.4 ± 1.8 154 ± 13.4 2450 ± 3.45 05 CS 11.4 ± 0.8 14.3 ± 0.85 3.7 ± 9.25 3.8 ± 1.6 352 ± 9.5 2910 ± 2.64 12 06 RS 12.57 ± 1.38 15.7 ± 1.41 4.08 ± 15.42 4.3 ± 2.2 557 ± 9.9 2640 ± 3.64 Index (IPI) and hairiness were measured with Uster coefficient of variation of irregularity in compact siro Tester-4. The yarn linear density was measured by yarn are due to improvement in the structure. The auto sorter and lea strength of yarn was measured on structure of siro compact yarn has more integrated Tensile Tester machine (mesdan tensile tester) under and smoother as compared to ring siro yarn. It may standard atmospheric conditions (20±2 °C and 65% be due to the low hairiness value as compared to ring RH). The nominal linear density and lea strength is siro yarn [6, 11, 19]. used for the measurement of CLSP. Comparison of imperfection index (IPI) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Yarn faults are classified into two main categories. These are seldom occurring yarn faults and frequent The results of measurements of yarn irregularity, occurring yarn faults. Seldom occurring yarn faults imperfection index, hairiness and tensile behavior of are measured in 100 km of yarn length. While, fre- ring siro and compact siro yarn with linear densities quent occurring yarn faults are measured in 1 km of of 60tex, 30tex and 12tex are given in table 3. yarn length. Frequent occurring yarn faults are thick Comparison of yarn irregularity places, thin places and neps. Imperfection index (IPI) is the sum of yarn Thin places (–50), Thick places Yarn irregularity is defined as the variation in weight (+50) and Neps (+200) per kilometer [1, 28, 29]. per unit length of the yarn or as the variation in thick- There is change in the values of thick places, thin ness of the yarn. Uster Tester measures the thick- places and neps of compact siro yarn of all linear ness variation of a yarn by measuring capacitance. densities as compared to ring spun siro yarn as Yarn irregularity is measured by Uster Tester in terms shown in the figure 3. The compact siro yarn with lin- of U% and coefficient of variation of irregularity in ear densities of 60tex, 30tex and 12tex has 36%, terms of CVm, CV3m, CV10m and DR 1.5 m% [28, 24% and 37% less IPI as compared to ring spun siro 29]. Yarn irregularity (U%) and coefficient of variation yarn. It is because of fibers are almost completely of irregularity (CVm) of ring and compact siro yarn bound in the body that yields much smoother surface with different linear densities are shown in the fig- and consequently, yarn faults were decreased [6, 11, ure 1 and figure 2. The irregularity of compact siro 19]. yarn with 60tex, 30tex and12tex has improved by 7.5%, 6% and 9% respectively as compared to ring Comparison of yarn hairiness siro yarn. In Uster Tester, hairiness is the ratio of the total The Coefficient of variation of irregularity (CV10 m %) length of protruding fibers (in centimeters) per cen- of compact siro yarn with linear density of 60tex, timeter of yarn [28, 29]. The hairiness of compact siro 30tex, 12tex is 8.5%, 8%, 9% better than ring siro yarn of all linear densities as compared to ring spun yarn. These improvements in yarn irregularity and siro yarn is shown in the figure 4. The siro yarn with Fig. 1. Comparisons of yarn irregularity Fig. 2. Comparisons of Yarn Irregularity (CV10m) industria textila˘ 247 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 3. Comparisons of yarn imperfection index Fig. 4. Comparisons of yarn hairiness linear density of 60tex, 30tex and 12tex spun on com- pact spinning has 11%, 8% and 12% less hairiness as compared to ring spun siro yarn respectively. Lower hairiness is an indicator of more compact structure. It shows that fibers are highly integrated in the body of compact siro yarn as compared to ring siro yarn [11, 15]. Comparison of tensile properties of yarn The tensile properties of textile yarn are measured in various ways. These are breaking force, tenacity, rapture per kilometer (Rkm) and count lea strength Fig. 5. Comparisons of yarn strength (CLSP) product (CLSP). Breaking strength is a measure of steady force necessary to break the specimen and is given experimentally by the maximum load devel- higher migration parameters were also responsible oped in a tensile test. The tenacity is defined as ratio for higher strength of compact spun siro yarn [6, of Force per unit Linear Density. Rupture per kilome- 10–15, 19]. ter (Rkm) is defined as the theoretical length of a specimen of yarn whose own weight would exert a CONCLUSIONS force to break the specimen of yarn. CLSP is defined The siro yarn with course, medium and fine linear as the product of nominal lea count and lea strength densities from Pakistani cotton were spun on pneu- of a yarn [28, 30]. matic compact (K-44) and ring spinning systems. The The CLSP of all compact siro yarns as compared to physical and mechanical properties of these yarns ring spun siro yarn is shown in the figure 5. CLSP of were tested and analyzed. The results revealed that compact siro spun yarns with linear density of 60tex, siro yarn spun on pneumatic compact (K-44) spinning 30tex and 12tex has 10%, 11% and 12% more system has remarkable properties as compared to strength than ring siro yarn respectively. It is because ring spun siro yarn. It has excellent yarn evenness, of number of factors. The compact siro yarn has low imperfection Index and very low yarn hairiness more fiber migration, higher spinning in coefficient, with improved tensile properties. It is also depicted improved percentage of straight fibers, low number of from the results of course, medium and fine siro com- broken fibers and fever hairiness. 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Authors: MUHAMMAD FURQAN KHURSHID 1 SARMAD ASLAM 1 USMAN ALI 1 AMIR ABASS 1 TALHA ALI HAMDANI 2 FIAZ HUSSAIN 2 1 Department of Textile Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 59060, Pakistan 2 Faculty of Engineering &Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad 37610, Pakistan e-mail: engr.furqan@bzu.edu.pk, sarmad_aslam@hotmail.com, usman.ali@bzu.edu.pk, amir.abbas@bzu.edu.pk, hamdani.talha@ntu.edu.pk, fiaz@ntu.edu.pk Corresponding author: MUHAMMAD FURQAN KHURSHID engr.furqan@bzu.edu.pk industria textila˘ 249 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Preparation and properties of electrospun PAN/LA-SA composite phase change fibers DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1358 GUIZHEN KE JIAFENG PEI KUNDI ZHU REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Prepararea și proprietățile materialelor compozite PAN/LA-SA realizate prin electrofilare Materialele cu schimbare de fază stabile ca formă pe bază de compozite PAN/binare eutectice LA-SA, în care LA-SA a servit ca material de schimbare de fază solid-lichid, iar PAN a acționat ca material de susținere, au fost fabricate cu succes prin electrofilare. Au fost studiate efectele cantității eutectice LA-SA asupra proprietăților de morfologie, structură și stocare a energiei termice a compozitelor PAN/LA-SA electrofilate. Imaginile cu microscop electronic (SEM) au arătat că compozitele PAN/LA-SA au o formare bună. Finețea fibelor a crescut odată cu creșterea conținutului eutectic LA-SA. Spectroscopia în infraroşu cu transformată Fourier (FTIR) a arătat că în materialul compozit PAN/LA-SA nu există legături chimice, iar interacțiunea principală dintre PAN și LA-SA a fost fizică. Analiza de calorimetrie prin scanare diferenţială (DSC) a indicat că valorile entalpiei compozitelor cu schimbare de fază au crescut treptat odată cu creșterea cantității eutectice LA-SA, iar temperaturile de topire ale acestora au fost cuprinse între 33,3° C și 38,9°C. Analiza gravimetrică termică (TG) a arătat că materialul compozit cu schimbare de fază PAN/LA-SA are o stabilitate termică bună sub 100°C. Cuvinte-cheie: electrofilare, LA-SA eutectic, PAN, compozite cu schimbare de fază Preparation and properties of electrospun PAN/LA-SA composite phase change fibers Form-stable phase change fibers based on LA-SA binary eutectic/PAN composite fibers in which LA-SA served as a solid-liquid phase change material and PAN acted as a supporting material were successfully fabricated through electrospinning. The effects of LA-SA eutectic amount on the morphology, structure and thermal energy storage properties of electrospun PAN/LA-SA composite fibers were studied. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images showed that PAN/LA-SA composite fibers have good formation. Fiber fineness increased with the increase of LA-SA eutectic content. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) showed in the PAN/LA-SA composite fiber there was no chemical bonds and the main interaction between PAN and LA-SA was physical. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis indicated that heat enthalpies values of the phase change composite fibers gradually increased with the increase of LA-SA eutectic amount, and their onset melting temperatures ranged from 33.3°C to 38.9°C. Thermal gravimetric (TG) analysis showed that PAN/LA-SA composite phase change fiber has good thermal stability below 100°C. Keywords: electrospinning; LA-SA eutectic; PAN; composite phase change fibers INTRODUCTION high capacity of latent heat [6–8]. However, liquid is Adaptive phase change material is one of the repre- produced during phase change process, which sentatives of smart materials. Phase change is a pro- brings inconvenience to the practical application. To cess of energy release or absorption, thus the envi- solve this problem, one method is to develop a form- ronment temperature can be adjusted during this stable phase change material [9–13]. The shape-sta- process. Phase change process is a physical pro- ble amorphous phase change materials are general- cess and there is no chemical reaction during this ly composed of substrate matrix and phase change process, since it is only the change of the physical materials. At present polymer is widely used as state. Based on these characteristics, phase change matrix to afford structural and mechanical support, materials can be used as a smart green material. In meanwhile, solid-liquid phase change materials are the past decades, PCMs have been studied and dispersed in the three-dimensional structure of the applied successfully in the various applications such polymer to form a new composite material. The com- as solar energy storage, energy efficient buildings, posite material is solid in macro during phase change space and water heating, waste heat utilization, cool- process and less prone to leakage and can be made ing and air-conditioning, medical application, cooling into different shapes and specifications of products of energy, thermal regulating fibers and smart textiles according to the needs of practical application. [1–5]. The used solid-liquid PCMs can be generally classi- So far, among a variety of latent heat energy storage fied into inorganic type (such as salt hydrate phase change materials, solid-liquid types have been Na2SO4×10H2O, CaCl2×6H2O) and organic type widely concerned, for their desired properties and (such as paraffins, fatty acids). Fatty acid have been characteristics such as the volume stability during extensively studied as a promising type due to the phase change, suitable range of melting temperature, desired properties and/or characteristics including industria textila˘ 250 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 low price, suitable melting temperature, high capaci- and XB is molar fraction percentage (XA + XB = 1), ty of latent heat, little or no super cooling during and HA and HB is melting latent heat (J/mol) of com- phase transitions, low vapor pressure of melts, envi- ponent A and B in the binary system, respectively; ronment friendly and good chemical stability [14–16]. and R is the gas constant, 8.315 J/(mol×K). By using However, their phase transition temperature is high equation 1, mass ration for LA-SA binary system can for climatic requirement which can limit their practical be calculated. applications. To overcome this disadvantage, fatty The binary eutectic system was prepared with fatty acid eutectic mixtures were widely researched and acids LA and SA. With the calculated eutectic ratio, prepared successfully by many researchers [17–20]. LA and SA weighed and mixed together in a sealed Based on the reports in the literature, many flask; the flask was then kept in an oven at 80°C for researchers have discovered that the phase transi- 2h. After fully melted, the mixture was treated with tion temperatures of fatty acid eutectic are lower than ultrasonic vibration at 60°C for 5 min. After that the that of corresponding individual fatty acid, but phase mixture was cooled at ambient temperature and kept change latent heats of the mixtures can be main- for use. tained at a sufficient level. Polymer and fatty acid Preparation of PAN/ LA-SA composite fiber have many similarity in compositions and properties, according to similarity and intermiscibility principle, PAN pellets were dissolved in n,n-dimethyl-formicaci by melt blending or blending spinning or in-situ poly- (DMF) and magnetically stirred for at least 3h to merization method, the three-dimensional network obtain 12%wt PAN solution. LA-SA binary eutectic structure of the polymer can well coated with organic material of different mass content was blended with phase change material to form a shape stabilized PAN solution and fully dissolved in solution. The composite phase change material [21–25]. mass ratio of LA-SA and PAN was 0.5:1, 0.7:1, 1:1 Electrospinning is a simple, convenient, and versatile and 1.2:1 respectively. After that, the blend solution technique for generating ultrafine fibers from wide was filled in a 10 ml plastic syringe with a blunt-end variety of polymers. These electrospun ultrafine stainless-steel needle. Inside diameter of the needle fibers possess special properties for example high was 0.5 mm. The spin dope was supplied by a porosity, large specific surface area, high surface syringe pump with a flow rate of 1 ml/h. The dis- charged voltage was 15 kV. The received distance energy and high activity. In this study, to utilize the was 20cm. The electro-spun fibers were collected as multi-scaled porous structure of electrospun fiber overlaid fibrous mats. mats, electrospinning technique has been tried to develop innovative form-stable PCMs. The form-sta- Characterization ble phase change composite fibers consisting of Scanning electron microscope (SEM, JEOL, JSM- binary lauric-stearic acid (LA-SA) eutectic and poly- 6510LV) was used to observe the surface morpholo- acrylonitrile (PAN) acted as a supporting material gy of the electrospun ultrafine composite fibers with were successfully fabricated by electrospinning. acceleration voltage of 10 kV. All samples were sput- EXPERIMENTAL PART tered and coated with gold under vacuum prior toSEM observation. Materials Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum of neat The PAN chip (Mw=50000) was obtained from PAN electrospun fiber and PAN/LA-SA composite Shanghai Plastics Co. (Shanghai, China). Lauric fibers were scanned using Bruker Alpha TENSOR acid [LA, CH (CH ) COOH], stearic acid [SA, 27X. The spectra were recorded between 600 cm –1 3 2 10 –1 CH3(CH2)16COOH] and n,n-dimethyl-formicaci (DMF) and 4000 cm by 32 scans for each. were supplied by Sinopharm Group Chemical Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC, NETZSCH Reagent Co. ltd. (Shanghai, China). DSC 204F1) and thermal gravimetric (TG, NETZSCH STA409PC) were employed to investigate the ther- Preparation of binary lauric-stearic acid (LA-SA) mal behaviors of individual fatty acids, binary fatty eutectic acid eutectics and electrospun ultrafine composite Based upon the lowest eutectic point theory, two fatty fibers. DSC testing was carried out from 25°C to acids can be blended together with eutectic ratio to 100°C with inflowing nitrogen atmosphere (50 mL/ achieve the eutectic temperature, which is lower than min) at a heating and cooling rate of 8°C/min. those of individual fatty acids. The eutectic ratios of Measurement precisions for calorimeter and temper- fatty acid mixtures were calculated by the Schrader ature was +2.0% and +2.0°C, respectively. TG test- equation [25, 26]. ing was carried out from 20°C to 800°C with inflowing nitrogen atmosphere (50 mL/min) at a heating rate of T = 1 (1) 100°C/min. Each sample was about 5 mg.m 1/TA – (R1nXA)/HA RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ( XAH X HHm = Tm A + B B ) (2) Thermal properties of individual fatty acids andTA TB binary fatty acid eutectics Where Tm is the melting temperature of a eutectic From the DSC curves of LA and SA (figure 1), the mixture, K; TA and TB is melting temperature (K), XA obtained melting temperature of LA and SA is 43.9°C industria textila˘ 251 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 1 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF LA AND SA BINARY MIXTURES LA/SA (%) 80:20 86.5:13.5 90:10 Onset melting temperature (°C) 39.1 38.8 39.5 Peak melting temperature (°C) 41.7 44.1 42.7 End melting temperature (°C) 44.6 48.2 44 Latent heat (kJ/kg) 146.5 135.1 127.9 Table 2 Fig. 1. DSC curves of LA and SA THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL LATENT HEAT VALUES OF LA AND SA BINARY Melting Latent and 69.1°C, and latent heat of LA and SA is 161.8 Molar tempera- heat of and 219.2 kJ/kg, respectively. Parameters fraction(%) ture fusion The molecular weight of LA and SA is 200.32 and (°C) (kJ/kg) 284.48, respectively. Combining these parameters Theoretical value 86.7:13.3 40.7 167.5 and equation 1 and 2, the calculated mass ration for Experimental value 86.5:13.5 38.8 135.1 LA-SA binary system is 86.7:13.3 (LA:SA), the melt- ing temperature and latent heat is 40.7°C and 167.5 Absolute error 0.2 1.9 32.4 kJ/kg respectively. In order to verify the accuracy of Relative error 0.23%/1.5% 4.7% 19.3% the above formula, LA and SA was mixed with differ- Note: Among 0.23%/1.5%, 0.23% is calculated based on value ent molar ratios and melting temperature and latent 86.7% and 1.5% based on value 13.3%. heat of the binary mixture were tested. The experi- mental results are shown in table 1. formed between LA and SA. And the results are con- It can be seen from table 1, the melting temperature sistent with the theoretical calculation values. The of LA–AS binary mixtures (80:20, 86.5:13.5, 90:10) comparison between experimental and theoretic was 39.1°C, 38.8°C and 39.5°C respectively. results is presented in table 2. The calculated results The latent heat of fusion values was 146.5, 135.1 agree well with the experimental values, thus and 127.9 kJ/kg, which shows that LA-SA binary 86.7:13.3 was selected as molar ratio of the binary mixtures have enough latent heat of fusion in the mixture. range of 127–147 kJ/kg and suitable melting tem- perature around 39°C. Latent heat and temperature Morphology observation of PAN/LA-SA of phase change vary with the molar fraction change composite fibers of LA and SA. The phase transition temperature and LA-SA binary eutectic and PAN was blended with dif- enthalpy of both pure fatty acids are higher than that ferent mass ratio and PAN/LA-SA composite fibers of the mixture. When the molar ratio of LA and SA is were prepared through electron spinning successful- 86.5:13.5, the binary mixture has lowest melting tem- ly. The morphology of composite fiber was investigat- perature, which means that a binary eutectic can be ed by SEM. The images are shown in figure 2. a b c d e Fig. 2. SEM images of PAN/LA-SA composite fibers: mass ratio of LA-SA and PAN: a – 0; b – 0.5:1; c – 0.7:1; d – 1:1; e – 1.2:1 industria textila˘ 252 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 As shown in figure 2, a, the neat PAN fibers are quite happened between PAN and LA-SA and PAN was uniform in diameters and have fine diameter and just a supporting matrix of LA-SA binary eutectics. smooth surfaces. It is observed that the composite Thermal energy storage properties fibers with LA-SA/PAN mass ratio of 0.5/1, 0.7/1, 1.2/1 are also smooth and cylindrical in shape. The thermal energy storage properties of electrospun However, with the increase of LA-SA eutectic mixture PAN/LA-SA ultrafine composite fibers were investi- gated with DSC method. DSC curves of various proportion in the composite fibers, the grooves and PAN/LA-SA fibers are presented in figure 4. The wrinkles on the surface of the composite fibers are characteristic temperatures and melting latent heat clearly observed. And fiber diameter also becomes are shown in table 3. DSC curves indicated that the coarse. The morphology of electrospun fibers is endothermic peaks of the composite fibers increased affected by many factors, such as polymer molecular with the increase of binary fatty acid eutectics con- weight, concentration and conductivity and viscosity tent, which means the increase of melting latent heat. of spinning solution, solvent volatilization and spin- Binary fatty acid eutectics mass percentage in the ning process parameters. Hydrogen bonds between composite fibers became the dominating factor for carbonyl (C°N) in PAN and carboxyl (–COOH) in the variations of latent heat. Though enthalpy value LA-SA binary eutectics might exist, which also result- of PAN/LA-SA can reach 88.08 kJ/kg, it is still far ed in the change of electrospun dope properties and smaller than that of pure LA-SA eutectics (135.1 thus the change of fiber morphology. However, due to kJ/kg). During phase change processes, the move- the protection and support of the PAN matrix, LA-SA ment of LA-SA may be confined by hydrogen bond- eutectic material can be combined into the polymer ing interaction between carbonyl (C°N) and carboxyl and the obtained PAN /LA-SA composite fibers have (–COOH) and limitation from PAN matrix, thus the good formation. crystallization process of LA-SA eutectics in fibers was retarded and the melting latent heat value was FTIR analysis of PAN/LA-SA composite fiber decreased [25]. It is observed that LA-SA mass con- FTIR spectrum of neat PAN ultrafine fibrous mats and tent and PAN polymer has little effects on phase PAN/LA-SA composite fibrous mats were shown in change temperature. Onset melting temperature figure 3. varies from 33.3°C to 38.9°C, which is a suitable It can be observed spectrum of PAN (a) shows typi- temperature range for energy storage application of cal absorption band at about 2252, 2940 and 1447 composites fibers in textile and building field. cm–1, which is belong to stretching vibration of cyanogroups –C°N, asymmetric and symmetric bending vibrations of methylene groups (–CH2–) in PAN molecular chains, respectively. Comparing to spectrum of PAN, some typical absorption peaks of fatty acid appear in spectrum of PAN/LA-SA (b). The band at 1702, 1278 and 949 cm–1 was belong to C=O, C–O and –OH stretching vibrations in LA-SA binary eutectics, respectively. The characteristic adsorption peak at 2842 cm–1 is ascribed to C–H symmetric stretching vibrations in fatty acid. Spectrum results indicated that no chemical reaction Fig. 4. DSC curves of PAN /LA-SA composite fibers Table 3 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF PAN/LA-SA COMPOSITE FIBERS Mass ratio Onset Peak End melt- of LA-SA melting melting ing tem- Latent and PAN tempera- tempera- perature, heat, ture, °C tue, °C °C kJ/kg 0.5:1 33.3 40.9 43.3 35.26 0.7:1 38.9 40.5 43.3 46.21 1:1 36.1 41.7 47.1 74.94 Fig. 3. FTIR spectrum of various fibers 1.2:1 36.9 44.0 46.9 88.08 industria textila˘ 253 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 4 THERMAL DEGRADATION VALUES OF PAN/LA-SA COMPOSITE FIBER LA-SA/PAN 0.5:1 0.7:1 1:1 1.2:1 Area Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 2 Onset (°C) 176.4 311.1 187.6 311.1 195.7 330.8 193.0 315.9 End (°C) 217.1 346.5 216.8 342.8 241.1 324.3 238.4 330.1 Mass change (%) 22.11 33.03 25.89 29.39 37.17 19 50.14 18.42 Thermal gravimetric analysis higher than 100°C, fatty acid easily decomposes and Phase change materials, especially organic phase volatiles and thus quality loss would happen. change materials, are often subjected to the oxida- Therefore, the composite phase change fiber film is tion, decomposition, volatilization and other reactions suitable for low temperature phase change heat stor- when they are subjected to high temperature. Here age areas, such as passive solar room, temperature- PAN/LA-SA composite fibers are tested using TG and adjustable garments and phase change building the results are shown in figure 5. The mass change materials. and decomposition onset and end temperature are summarized in table 4. Obviously there are two main CONCLUSIONS weight-loss areas. Phase 1 occurs from 176°C to Lauric acid (LA) and stearic acid (SA) binary eutec- 240°C, and it is mainly due to fatty acid carbonization tics were prepared with molar ratio 86.7:13.3. The and degradation. It can be observed that onset tem- theoretical melting temperature was 38.8°C, close to perature of weight loss is delayed from 176.4°C to experimental value 40.7°C, lower than that of pure 193.0°C with the increase of LA-SA content, which might be due to inhibitory effect of strong hydrogen LA or SA. PAN was taken as matrix and LA-SA as bond on LA-SA volatilization. Phase 2 happens from phase change material, and form-stable phase 311°C to 346°C, and it is mainly from PAN degrada- change composite fibers were electrospun success- tion. TG results showed that PAN/LA-SA composite fully. The PAN/LA-SA composite fiber had good for- phase change fiber has good thermal stability below mation, while when LA-SA content was too high, fiber 100°C, but when the environment temperature is would become coarse and wrinkled. No chemical interaction happened between PAN and LA-SA eutectics. Latent heat value of PAN/LA-SA increased from 35.26 kJ/kg to 88.08 kJ/kg with the increase of LA-SA mass fraction, but it was far below the value of pure LA-SA eutectics (135.1 kJ/kg). Relatively speak- ing, the influence on phase transition temperature was small. The phase change temperatures of the composite fibers ranged from 33.3°C to 38.9°C. PAN/LA-SA composite phase change fiber had good thermal stability below 100°C. 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Authors: GUIZHEN KE JIAFENG PEI KUNDI ZHU Department of Textile Science and Engineering, Wuhan Textile University Yangguang Road Number 1, Jiangxia District Wuhan City (Zip Code: 430020), China Corresponding author: GUIZHEN KE e-mail: kgz66@126.com, guizhen.ke@wtu.edu.cn industria textila˘ 255 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Shrink resistant finishing and mechanism analysis on the silk/hemp fabric DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1290 SHU-QIANG LIU YI CUI GAI-HONG WU HONG-XIA GUO REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Analiza mecanismului de finisare rezistentă la contracție asupra țesăturii de mătase/cânepă Țesăturile de mătase/cânepă sunt populare pentru caracteristicile de biodegradare, permeabilitate excelentă, finețe și beneficiile pentru sănătate, dar au un dezavantaj evident, acela de a se contracta foarte mult la spălare. În scopul rezolvării acestei probleme, în această lucrare au fost aplicate tehnologii de finisare fizică și chimică. S-au studiat efectele parametrilor de prelucrare a finisării fizice, temperaturii și timpului de imersie asupra gradului de contracție și au fost studiate alte proprietăți ale țesăturii de mătase/cânepă. Mai mult, au fost investigați parametrii chimici de finisare, cum ar fi raportul dintre acidul citric (CA)/acidul (poli)maleic (PMA), dozele de PMA, CA și catalizatorul de hipofosfit de sodiu (SHPP). Rezultatele au arătat că parametrii optimi de imersie au fost la 65°C timp de 60 de minute. Condițiile optime de procesare a finisării chimice au fost următoarele: raportul 3:1 CA/PMA, doza de 40 g/L PMA și CA și doza de de 30 g/L catalizator SHPP. După procesarea prin finisarea fizică și chimică optimă, gradul de contracție al țesăturilor de mătase/cânepă a scăzut la 0%. Mecanismul de contracție a fost discutat, de asemenea, pentru a evalua în viitor deformarea fibrelor la astfel de tratamente. Cuvinte-cheie: țesătură de mătase/cânepă, finisare rezistentă la contracție, finisare pre-conracție, finisare fizică și chimic Shrink resistant finishing and mechanism analysis on the silk/hemp fabric Silk/hemp fabrics are popular with people for their biodegradation, excellent permeability, smooth and healthy, but they have one obvious drawback of shrink seriously in the wash. Aiming at solving this problem, the physical and chemical finishing technologies were applied in this paper. The effects of processing parameters of physical finishing, immersion temperature and time, on the shrinkage ratio and other properties of silk/hemp fabric were studied. Moreover, the chemical finishing parameters, such as the ratio of citric acid (CA)/poly (maleic acid) (PMA), dosages of PMA, CA, and catalyst of Sodium Hypophosphite (SHPP) were also investigated. The results showed that the optimal immersion parameters were at 65°C for 60 min. The optimal processing conditions of chemical finishing were as follows: 3:1 ratio of CA/PMA, 40 g/L dosage of PMA and CA, and 30 g/L dosage of catalyst SHPP. After processed by the optimal physical and chemical finishing, the shrinking percentage of silk/hemp fabrics declined to 0%. The shrinkage mechanism was also discussed to further disclose the deformation of fibres under such treatments. Keywords: silk/hemp fabric; shrink resistant finishing; pre-shrink finishing; physical and chemical finishing INTRODUCTION would be weakened. So the shrink resistant treat- As a kind of natural protein fibre, silk has many out- ments to silk/ hemp fabrics are absolutely necessary. standing performances, such as smooth and soft Review of the literatures revealed the shrink resistant handle, gentle luster, antibiotic property, so it always treatments were almost for wool fabrics [11–15]. For instance, Eslahi applied extracted feather protein to is people’s most favorite product [1–5]. Meanwhile, improve the shrinkage of wool fabric [16]. Gao used hemp, as another kind of natural cellulose fibre, also the polymeric biocide polyhexamethylene biguanide possesses many superior features, as good moisture (PHMB) to resist the shrinkage of wool woven fabric permeability, high strength, small deformation, bacte- [17]. Only small proportion of literatures made ricidal ability, etc. [6–10], which was often applied in research on the shrinkage resistance of silk fabrics, various types of garments. So the fabrics blended and most of treatment methods adopted in these lit- with silk and hemp fibres, would assemble these eratures were chemical finishing techniques [18–20]. excellent characteristics of silk and hemp, including For example, Yang applied natural chemical agent soft luster, admirable draping quality, cool feeling, ‘Chorangak liquid’ to reduce the shrinkage of silk fab- excellent air permeability and many others. Thus the rics [21]. Based on literature research, it was found silk/hemp fabrics are deemed to be one most promis- that there was almost no literature studying shrink ing material for summer clothing. However, the silk/ resistant on silk/hemp fabric. Besides that, the phys- hemp fabrics shrink seriously when washing, which ical and chemical techniques were usually used sep- usually leads to distortion and deformation to. Even arately, but both of the two techniques could make worse, the superior properties of silk/hemp fabrics contributions towards the shrinkage resistance [22]. industria textila˘ 256 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 So to achieve better shrink resistance, the physical squeezes”. Based on previous literatures, this and chemical finishing techniques were both used research adopted single factor experiment to investi- in this paper. Firstly the silk/hemp fabrics were gate the effect of these parameters on shrinkage preshrunk in warm water directly, which belonged to resistance [23–24]. After that, the fabrics were dried physical treatment. Following the chemical agents in an oven at 170°C for 3 min. In chemical finishing, were used to improve the shrinkage of silk/hemp fab- 3 parameters, the ratio of CA/PMA, dosage of PMA rics. It is worth mentioning that all chemical agents and CA and the catalyst dosage of SHPP were stud- employed in this study were harmless and environ- ied. Notably, in this experiment the physical and mentally friendly. Then, the influences of processing chemical finishing approaches were joined together parameters of physical and chemical finishing on the to improve the shrinkage of silk/hemp fabrics. shrinkage and other properties of silk/hemp fabrics were studied. Finally, the optimal parameters of Fabric testing shrink resistant could be obtained. Moreover, the The static shrinkage of fabric was measured by a mechanism of shrinkage resistance was also investi- Fabric Shrinkage Test Machine (YG-703, Wenzhou gated. Fangyuan Instrument Co., Ltd., China). The tensile properties of fabric were tested by Fabric Strength EXPERIMENTAL WORK Machine (YG(B)026D-500, Wenzhou Darong Textile Materials Instrument Co., Ltd., China) at 20 mm/min test speed and 200 mm test length. And the drape coefficient of Silk/hemp fabrics, whose warp yarns were mulberry fabric was measured by Fabric Drape Tester silk and weft yarns were hemp/cotton blending (YG811E, Wuhan Guoliang Instrument Co., Ltd., yarns, were supplied by Shanxi Jilier Lu Silk Industry China). (China). And their fibre contents were 34% silk, 36% hemp and 30% cotton, the weight was 89 g/m2, as RESULTS AND DISCUSSION well as the static shrinkage percentage was 5.2%. Effect of immersion temperature on shrinkage of Chemical reagents used in this experiment were as fabric follows: Citric Acid (CA, C6H8O7) from Beijing The silk/hemp fabrics were soaked into a water bath Chemical Works, China; Poly (Maleic Acid) (PMA for 50 min, and then dried in an oven at 65°C for C4H4O4, Mn≤2000) from Luoyang Tengyi Chemical 5 min. The effects of immersion temperature on Company, China; Sodium Hypophosphite (SHPP, shrinkage of fabrics are shown in figure 1. NaH2PO2·H2O) from Yueqiao Reagent Plastic Co., Figure 1 showed that the weft shrinkage changed Ltd, Taishan, China; Trolamine [TEA, (HOCH2CH2)3N] slightly from 0% to –0.3%, which expressed that the from Zhengzhou Chemical Reagent No.2 Factory, immersion temperature hardly affected the weft China; Boric Acid (BA, H3BO3) from Chaoyang shrinkage of fabric, and would cause a little elonga- Chemical Factory; Primary Alcobol Ethoxylate [AEO, tion in the weft direction. The reason was that the C12H25O·(C2H4O)7] from Xingfasheng Chemical weft yarn of fabric was made of hemp and cotton Company, Shanxi, China. fibres, and this yarn would swell after absorbing Processing of shrink resistant finishing water in bath. So its diameter would increase, while the length of hemp/cotton yarn was hardly increased. Firstly, physical finishing technique was used to dis- Therefore the weft yarn or the weft of fabric hardly pose the fabrics. The fabric was placed in the water shrink and have just a little elongation. bath (HH-8, Ningbo Textile Instrument Factory, Comparing to the weft direction, the warp shrinkage China) under certain immersion temperature (20, 35, changed obviously with the rise of immersion tem- 50, 65, 80°C) and time (30, 60, 90, 120, 150 min). perature, firstly decreased and then increased. The Then it was pressed by two rollers to squeeze out excess water in the fabric. After that, the fabric was dried in an oven (DHG-9070, Ningbo Textile Instrument Factory, China) under 65°C for 5 min. In the process of physical finishing, 2 parameters, immersion temperature and immersion time, were employed to investigate their effects on shrinkage resistance of silk/hemp fabrics. Following, the fabrics were disposed by chemical fin- ishing. They were dipped in the chemical treating solution (CA, PMA, SHPP, TEA, BA and AEO was dissolved in water to prepare the solution with con- centrations of 20g/l TEA, 5g/l BA, 2g/l AEO, 40g/L SHPP, 40g/L CA and the ratio of CA to PMA was set as 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1) until completely soaked, and then squeezed by rollers to remove the excess liquid. The dip-squeeze processing was repeated 2 times. Fig. 1. Shrinkage varied with the rise of immersion The whole processing was called “double-dips-double- temperature industria textila˘ 257 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 warp shrinkage was lowest at 65°C. The cause of this From the view of shrinkage and energy saving, opti- phenomenon was attributed to the warp yarn which mum immersion time was 60 min. was made of silk fibers. When the silk yarns were in moist and heat condition, they would form extremely Effect of ratio of CA/PMA on shrinkage of fabric small jagged shape, and then shrink. Besides that, In the chemical treatment solution, the concentration when the hemp/cotton weft yarn swelled and grew of catalyst SHPP was 40 g/L, and CA was 40 g/L. And bigger in diameter, the silk warp yarn, which was the dosage of PMA was adjusted according to the interwoven with the bigger weft yarn, would be ratio of CA/PMA of 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1. obliged to shrink. Moreover, the shrink formed in water bath was hard to recover when drying. Therefore, the processing of water bathing was called as “pre-shrinking”. Through pre-shrinking, the shrinkage of warp of fabric would decline to the orig- inal fabric. As figure 1 showed, the pre-shrinking became more effective with the rise of immersion temperature and warp shrinkage decreased even more. However, when the immersion temperature was too high (above 80°C), part of crystal structure inside of silk macromolecule decomposed and the orientation degree of silk decreased. Consequently, the stability of silk declined, and further the silk warp yarns could- n’t preshrink completely in water bath. Then the shrinkage of silk warp increased. Thus it drew the conclusion that the optimal immer- sion temperature was 65°C. Fig. 3. Shrinkage change with the ratio of CA/PMA Effect of immersion time on shrinkage of fabric Figure 2 showed that the weft shrinkage changed Figure 3 showed that the weft shrinkage was keeping slightly (less than 0.3%) with the rise of immersion on fluctuating around the vicinity of 0%, which illus- time. The hemp/cotton yarn would swell after absorb- trated that the weft of fabric would no longer shrink ing water and its diameter would increase, but the essentially after chemical finishing. length of hemp/cotton yarn was hardly affected by The warp shrinkage of fabric decreased firstly and water bathing, so the weft shrinkage was very small increased afterward with the ratio of CA/PMA. And and changed little. the warp shrinkage was smallest at 3:1. It was As for the warp direction, the shrinkage decreased because the α-hydroxyl groups of CA could react with firstly, but then almost invariant when the immersion carboxyl groups of PMA, and formed polybasic car- time was longer than 60 min. In water bath, the pre- shrinking of silk warp became more effectively for boxylic acid copolymers (PMA-CA) which had bigger longer immersion time, so the warp shrinkage structures. This copolymer in high temperature could decreased firstly. Then the immersion time was long be dehydrated into anhydride. Moreover, this anhy- enough (longer than 60 min), the pre-shrinking effect dride reacted with catalyst of SHPP and further of silk warp changed slightly, so the warp shrinkage formed an intermediate product, which could react changed slightly. with hydroxyl and amino groups on the macromolec- ular chain of fibres. Then a system with network cross-linked structure was formed. Based on the net- work cross-linked structure, the macromolecular chains of fibre entangled, so the relative slippage between large molecules was limited. Certainly, the shrinkage of silk/hemp fabric would be reduced. On the basis of the above reactions, the PMA and CA reacted more completely, the warp shrinkage of fab- ric would be smaller. As the figure 3 showed the opti- mum ratio of CA/PMA was 3:1. Effect of catalyst dosage of SHPP on shrinkage of fabric The chemical reagent SHPP was used as catalyst [25] in the experiment. The dosage of SHPP was appropriate when the ratio of CA/PMA was 3:1 (40 g/L CA and 13.33 g/L PMA). The effect SHPP on Fig. 2. Shrinkage varied with the immersion time shrinkage of fabric was shown in figure 4. industria textila˘ 258 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 4. Effect of dosage of SHPP on shrinkage of fabric Fig. 5. Effect of dosages of CA on shrinkage of fabric It can be seen in figure 4 that the weft shrinkage fluc- Table 1 tuated around 0%, which expressed that the dosage of SHPP affected slightly on the weft shrinkage. DOSAGES OF PMA AND CA But the warp shrinkage of fabric changed obviously Dosage of CA Dosage of PMA with the rise of dosage of SHPP, firstly decreased and (g/L) (g/L) then increased. Because more amounts of SHPP 30 10 could accelerate crosslinking reaction between 40 13.33 chemical agents and fiber’s macromolecules, so the 50 16.67 warp shrinkage decreased firstly. At 30 g/L of SHPP dosage, the warp shrinkage was smallest. But when 60 20 dosage of SHPP exceeded 30 g/L, the warp shrink- 70 23.33 age increased conversely. After the crosslinking reac- tions of finishing agents and fiber’ macromolecules From the experimental results, it can be drawn that completely, it would cause hydrolysis of finishing the optimal dosage of CA was at 40 g/L, and the agents and fibre’s macromolecules. So the optimal dosage of PMA was at 13.33 g/L. dosage of SHPP was 30 g/L. Optimum process and verification Effect of dosage of PMA and CA on properties According to the above analysis, the optimal param- of fabric eters of physical and chemical finishing are as fol- The ratio of PMA/CA was 1:3, and the dosage of lows: 65°C immersion temperature; 60 min immer- SHPP was 30 g/L, and the dosage of PMA and CA sion time; 3:1 ratio of CA/PMA; 30 g/L SHPP; 40 g/L was designed as listed in table 1. The effect of dosage CA and 13.33 g/L PMA. of CA on shrinkage of fabric was shown in figure 5. In order to verify the optimal process, the silk/hemp Figure 5 showed that with the rise of dosage of CA, fabric was treated by physical and chemical finishing the weft shrinkage had fluctuated around 0%, while under these parameters. The qualities of treated the warp shrinkage declined firstly (the lowest value silk/hemp fabric were given in table 2. at 40 g/L), and then increased slowly. This mainly Table 2 showed that the warp shrinkage of fabric caused by a number of hydroxyl groups in silk/hemp reduced significantly and the weft shrinkage went fabric, which reacted with the chemical agents (e.g. down slightly after shrink resistant finishing. It PMA and CA). When the dosage of finishing agents revealed that the optimal shrink resistant finishing was small (below 30 g/L CA), the hydroxyl groups was effective, especially for warp direction. could not reacted with finishing agents (PMA and CA) The strength of fabric declined after shrink resistant completely, hence the warp shrinkage was big. When finishing. The strength of warp declined by a large the dosage of finishing agents was appropriate, these margin, while the weft declined a little. It suggested hydroxyl groups would thoroughly react with finishing that the shrink resistant finishing would lead to some agents, so the warp shrinkage was small. While, damages on silk/hemp fabric, especially for the warp when the dosage of finishing agents were over high yarns. (e.g. 50–70 g/L CA), the finishing agents might accu- The static drape coefficient of fabric showed in table mulate on the surface of silk/hemp fabric, which 2 decreased a little after shrink resistant finishing, impeded the pre-shrink processing of chemical fin- which can be the case that the fabric’ structure ishing, then the warp shrinkage would increase again become tighter after physical finishing (or pre-shrink over 50 g/L. finishing) and the cracks in fabric was filled by the industria textila˘ 259 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 2 QUALITIES OF TREATED SILK/HEMP FABRIC Shrinkage Strength of fabric Static drape Qualities (%) (cN) coefficient Warp Weft Warp Weft (%) Original fabric silk/hemp fabric 5.20±0.01 0.10±0.01 368.2±0.1 688.5±0.1 38±1 Silk/hemp fabric treated by optimum 0.01±0.01 0.08±0.01 325.6±0.1 680.6±0.1 40±1 shrink resistant finishing chemical agents after chemical finishing, so the fab- absorbing water. And the shrunk silk warp yarn ric became stiff, then the draping of fabric got worse couldn’t recover completely after dried, so it caused slightly. the resistance of warp yarns. According to the test, Shrinking and shrink-resistant mechanisms of the shrinkage of pure silk fabric was about 3%. The silk/hemp fabric shrinkage caused by the silk warp yarn after absorb- In this paper the reasons of shrinkage for silk/hemp ing water was illustrated in figure 6. fabric were also analyzed. There may be two rea- The other reason is that the hemp/cotton weft yarn sons: one is that the silk warp yarn would shrink after would swell after absorbing water and its diameter increased. Thus, the silk warp yarn would be uplifted under stress of the swollen hemp/cotton weft yarn, so the length of fabric in warp-wise would shrink. The shrinking process was illustrated in figure 7. For the two reasons, the shrinkage of fabric in warp- wise increased to about 5%. Therefore, the physical finishing and chemical finish- ing were both applied to solve the problem of shrink- ing. In physical finishing, the fabric was pre-shrunk under the actions of water and heat. In chemical fin- ishing, there were two processes to stop shrinking. One is the chemical agents reacted and linked with the fiber, then the yarns were coated with chemical finishing agents. Thus the water molecules were not easy to enter into the yarns and the fibers, therefore, the water absorption of yarn and fiber decreased as shown in figure 8. The other process is that the chemical finishing Fig. 6. Silk warp yarn would shrink after absorbing water agents formed a bond among silk fibers or yarns, and Fig. 7. Hemp/cotton weft yarn would swell after Fig. 8. The yarn and fibers were coated with absorbing water the chemical finishing agents industria textila˘ 260 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 CONCLUSION The optimal processes of shrinkage resistance fin- ishing for silk/hemp fabric can be divided into two steps. The first step, that is physical finishing, is to soak the general silk/hemp fabric into a water bath at 65°C for 60 min, and then dry it in an oven at 65°C for 5 min. The second step, that is chemical finishing, is to treat the fabric in chemical solution and squeeze twice, then dry it in an oven at 170°C for 3 min. Through the shrink resistant finishing, the fabric warp shrinkage reduced significantly, as the weft shrinkage changed slightly. Based on the experimental results, the optimal technical parameters, which were 3:1 ratio of CA/PMA, 40 g/L dosage of PMA and CA, and 30 g/L dosage of catalyst SHPP, were obtained. Further, the shrinking and shrinkage mechanism were also analysed. The internal and external of the fibres in the fabric had changed under chemical regents, Fig. 9. The chemical finishing agents formed a bond so its shrinking percentage had been declined. among fibers or yarns Acknowledgements then the weft yarn and warp yarn couldn’t slip with This work was supported by Nature Science Foundation of each other. So the dimension of fabric became stable Shanxi, China (No. 2014021020-2, 2015021076), Scientific as shown in figure 9. and Technological Innovation Programs of Higher Education Institutions in Shanxi, China (No. 2015125), the As a whole, after processed by physical and chemi- Youth Foundation of Taiyuan University of Technology cal finishing, the shrinkage of silk/hemp fabrics was (No. 2015QN042), and also Donghua University Doctoral improved greatly. Innovation Fund, China (CUSF-DH-D-2015081). BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Binkowska, B., Sapieja, A., Marszalek, R., et al., Protective properties against UV radiation of natural silk textiles. 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Authors: SHU-QIANG LIU1 GAI-HONG WU1,2 YI CUI1 HONG-XIA GUO1 1 College of Textile Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030021, China; 2 Fashion Institute of Design, Donghua University, Shanghai, 200051, China Corresponding author: SHU-QIANG LIU e-mail: liushuqiang8866@126.com industria textila˘ 262 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Model of thermal absorptivity of knitted rib in dry state and its experimental authentication DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1337 ASIF ELAHI MANGAT FUNDA BUYUK LUBOS HES MUDASSAR ABBAS VLADIMIR BAJZIK REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Modelul absorbției termice a tricotului patent în stare uscată și autentificarea experimentală a acestuia Absorbția termică este un factor important pentru confortul corpului uman și, din acest motiv, au fost realizate probe utilizând fire de poliester 100% cu o greutate plană deosebită și o variație semnificativă în profilul de suprafață al tricoturilor patent. Absorbția termică a tuturor probelor a fost măsurată utilizând aparatul Alambeta. Absorbția termică este un indicator al senzației calde-rece în timpul interacțiunii dintre materialul textil și corpul uman. S-a constatat că există o corelație semnificativă între absorbția termică și profilul de suprafață al tricotului patent. Folosind analiza de regresie, a fost dezvoltată o ecuație pentru predicția absorbției termice a tricotului. Această ecuație este destul de utilă pentru designerii de îmbrăcăminte pentru a-i ajuta să producă o confecţie care nu dă senzație de rece în timp ce aceasta este purtată într-un mediu rece. Cuvinte-cheie: profil de suprafață, absorbție termică, senzație de rece, tricoturi patent, analiza de regresie, îmbrăcăminte Model of thermal absorptivity of knitted rib in dry state and its experimental authentication Thermal absorptivity is an important factor in comfort of human body, for this samples were produced using 100% polyester yarn with particular planar weight and significate variation in the surface profile of rib knit fabrics. Thermal absorptivity of all samples was measured using Alambeta. Thermal absorptivity is an indicator of warm-cool feeling during the interaction between the fabric and the human hand. It was found that there is a significant correlation between thermal absorptivity and surface profile of the knitted rib. Using regression analysis, we have developed an equation for the prediction of thermal absorptivity of the fabric. This equation is quite helpful for clothing designers to help them manufacture a fabric, which does not give cool feeling while wearing in a cold environment. Keywords: surface profile, thermal absorptivity, cool feeling, rib knit fabrics, regression analysis, clothing INTRODUCTION absorptivity are helpful for manufacturing clothing Thermal absorptivity is a vital property of material architecture of undergarments. The result of this fabrics and it is the subject of numerous studies as study is a mathematical statement, which foresees well. It relies on the thermal conductivity of fibers, thermal absorptivity of a fabric having different sur- density of fabric and specific heat of the material. face profiles. Undergarments are normally manufac- Thermal absorptivity demonstrates the capacity of a tured using cotton or comforting cotton combinations material to give warm-cool feeling when a material is with other fabrics. On the other hand, polypropylene touched for a short time approximately for two sec- is additionally used to make undergarments including onds. Thermal conductivity is anisotropic in nature vests for players, which help in evaporating the sweat and generally relies on the structure of the material. from skin to environment. It happens because of non- Density of fabric depicts the mass per unit volume of retentive nature of polypropylene. In this study, we a fabric. It indicates the ratio of solid and void area in have created specimen utilizing polyester. the fabric. Fabric consists of polymers (filaments), air This study is an effort to add to a model of thermal caught inside fabric and dampness in voids. Thermal absorptivity of the fabric [1–5]. Thermal absorptivity 0.5 –2 –1 (b) of fabrics was introduced by, which is an indicatorabsorptivity Ws m K is linked with the thermal of warm feeling (heat level) amid short contact with conductivity [Wm–1K–1] and thermal capacity of fabric human skin with the fabric surface [6]. Given that the [Jm–3K–1]. Thermal capacity is a product of density time of high temperature contact  between the [Kgm–3] and specific heat [JKg–1K–1]. Any change in human skin and the material takes place for a few the thermal conductivity and fabric thickness will seconds, the measured fabric can be disentangled change the thermal absorptivity of a fabric. into semi-unbounded homogenous mass with certain Prediction of changes in thermal absorptivity is quite warm limit represented by c [Jm–3] and starting tem- useful because variety in surface profile is required perature t2. Unstable temperature field between the while fabric is intended for apparels utilized as under- human skin (with steady temperature t1) and fabric garments. Models ready to anticipate the thermal regarding of limit conditions offers a relationship, industria textila˘ 263 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 which empowers to focus the heat stream q [Wm–2] important parameters of thermos-physiological com- that passes through the fabric b Ws0.5m–2K–1 t [°C] fort. Findings of Varga et al. show that the thermal b(t – t ) absorptivity of a fabric is an indicator of the amount of q = 1 2 (1) heat taken away from the surface of the fabric per p0.5 unit time. In case, if a fabric does not conduct heat b = lc (2) away from its surface, it will have a warm feeling, which shows low thermal absorptivity. High thermal Where ρc (Jm–3K–1) represents the thermal capacity absorptivity values indicate cool feeling in the initial of the fabric and the term b represents thermal touch, which is not preferred for undergarments. absorptivity Ws0.5m–2K1ج of fabrics. The higher the Polypropylene is a commonly used, inexpensive syn- thermal absorptivity of the fabric is, the cooler its incli- thetic polymer. PP fibres belong to the textile raw nation will be. In the material praxis, this parameter materials being frequently used. The surface of such ranges from 20 Ws0.5m–2K–1 for fine nonwoven net- monofilaments is really smooth, and this makes the works to 600 Ws1/2m–2K–1 for overwhelmingly wet modification procedure and the process control easi- fabrics. Thermal absorptivity is the objective mea- er investigated the moisture management and ther- surement of the warm-cool feeling of fabrics. When a mal absorptivity properties of double-faced Knitted human touches a garment that has a different tem- fabrics [13–14]. Rib is also a double knitted fabric. perature than the skin, heat exchange occurs They observed that double faces are more effective between the hand and the fabric. If the thermal for high Moisture transfer from skin to the environ- absorptivity of clothing is high, it gives a cooler feel- ment, which makes garments made up of such fabric ing at first contact [7]. In conventional manufacturing more functional And comfortable. For their study, they technology of cloth- development and technical developed double knit fabrics. This fabric has differ- progress in the field of engineering the industrial sys- ent or same yarn Combinations in the front and back tem, the body-clothing correspondence is often sides. Supuren et al. used distinctive types of yarn assessed in stores according to the stock products (cotton–cotton, cotton–polypropylene, polypropy- which remain. Unsold products do not reflect that lene–cotton and polypropylene–polypropylene) for they are obsolete or don’t have the best quality in both sides of the fabric. Alambeta was used for char- terms of accuracy of manufacturing technology, acterization of maisture management properties and appropriate use of raw and auxiliary materials, but thermal absorptivity values. Their findings show that they were not purchased because they corresponded the polypropylene (cotton from inside and fabric from to the dimensional morphological requirements of the outside) fabric has better moisture management users [8]. properties, which provides high levels of comfort and THERMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT they should be preferred for summer and sportswear.Another parameter showing the comfort is warm– Work of Olaru, S., et al. is quite relevant to our study, cool feeling. When the human touches a garment they explained that warm-cool feeling is the first sen- that has a different temperature than the skin, heat sation [9]. They concluded that higher thermal exchange occurs between the hand and the fabric, absorptivity of clothing gives a cooler feeling during and the warm–cool feeling is the first sensation. the initial contact with the human skin. They found Which feeling is better depends on the customer; for that in both cotton and polyester fabrics, the interlock hot summer garments a cooler feeling is demanded, fabrics with highest thermal absorptivity values pro- whereas in winter warmer feeling is preferred [3]. vide the coolest feeling at the beginning of skin con- This supports our selection of polyester for develop- tact due to specific construction of the fabric surface. ing of mode. It is important to note that polypropylene The surface area between the fabric and skin is big- is quite sensitive to heat due to low melting point as ger for smooth fabric surfaces and these structures compared to polyester. Polypropylene garments can- have a cooler feeling as mentioned. This study not be ironed to remove wrinkles due to its low melt- describes that the thermal absorptivity depends upon ing point. It is one of the limitations of Polypropylene, the surface profile of a fabric. Smooth surface pro- which did not let it become popular for dresses. vides maximum contact points and heat transfers between the skin and the fabric. More heat transfer EXPERIMENT AND RESULTS means higher thermal absorptivity and more intense warm-cool feeling. Clothing comfort can be induced Sample description by thermal, pressure-related and tactile properties. This study took into account knitted rib fabrics in Among these factors affecting clothing comfort, the order to verify the above mentioned thermal absorp- thermal factor is the most decisive one affecting the tivity model. A weft-knitted rib fabric is highly dense in comfort level. Thermal factors are often important in nature. 14 kinds of samples were produced on Flat determining whether a given clothing ensemble is knitted machine 12 gauge all samples were produced suitable for the use under specified condition have with same yarn 100 % polyester but keeping the studied physiological impact of resin-treated fabrics thickness same and 50 yarn count was used for the including tencel and other cellulosic fibers [10–12]. production of the samples only surface area is They included thermal absorptivity as one of the changed from sample to sample, see table 1. industria textila˘ 264 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 a b Fig. 1. Geometrical shapes of samples: a – 3x2 rib type; b – 4x4 rib type Table 1 testing instrument that enables a researcher to record a measurement quickly. One of the unique Sample Rib Planar Thicknessweight (h) Porosity instruments, through which, the full signal is achievedno. types (gm2) (mm) [1] within less than three minutes is Alambeta (Sensora Czech Republic). The Alambeta is a computer-con- 1 1.1 481 1.91 0.818 trolled, semiautomatic, nondestructive thermal tester 2 1.2 400 2.00 0.855 for testing textile fabrics. The biggest advantage of 3 2.1 541 1.96 0.800 the Alambeta testing is that the instrument immedi- 4 2.2 560 2.00 0.797 ately displays the thermal absorptivity levels of the 5 2.3 462 2.05 0.837 tested fabrics. The Alambeta has been used in vari- 6 3.1 523 2.05 0.815 ous other studies as well. Selection of Alambeta is 7 3.3 477 2.06 0.833 based on its effectiveness, efficiency and scope in 8 3.4 471 2.02 0.831 many studies [6, 16, 17]. Samples were kept in a testing lab in the open air of 9 4.1 485 1.98 0.823 the lab, where the temperature was maintained 10 4.2 548 2.26 0.824 between 20°C and 22°C, and the relative humidity 11 4.3 540 2.06 0.810 was between 24% and 25%. This was all done to 12 4.4 540 2.23 0.825 minimize the impact of moisture in the knitted rib fab- 13 1.1 378 1.99 0.862 ric. Each sample were measured were tested 5 times 14 2.1 422 2.01 0.848 to get the better reading and all samples were fall on 15 3.1 447 1.98 0.836 the same values. Humans are sensitive to humidity because the 16 4.1 474 1.92 0.821 human body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by 17 5.1 501 2.01 0.819 perspiration, as the primary mechanism to rid itself of 18 6.1 470 2.11 0.839 waste heat. Perspiration evaporates from the skin more slowly under humid conditions than under arid Some of the samples geometrical were developed conditions. Because humans perceive a low rate of with the help of software to get a more detailed idea heat transfer from the body to be equivalent to a high- of samples and there surface profile, in figure 1 it is er air temperature, the body experiences greater dis- clear from (a) rib type 3x2 is used and if increase in tress of waste heat burden at high humidity than at the number of ribs the surface area will also be lower humidity, given equal temperatures. changed. Elongation at break (similarly maximum The air temperature is 24°C (75°F) and the relative force to rupture) demonstrates fabrics knitted in tuck- humidity is zero percent, then the air temperature rib stitch patterns. Elongation at break of tuck-rib stitch fabrics Knitted in a basis of 1×1 and 1×1×1×2 feels like 21°C (69°F). If the relative humidity is 100 rib is the same in course and wale direction. And percent at the same air temperature, then it feels like elongation at breaking course direction of tuck-rib 27°C (80°F). In other words, if the air is 24°C (75°F) stitch fabrics knitted basis of 2×2 rib is about twice and contains saturated water vapour, then the human greater than in wale direction [15]. body cools itself at the same rate as it would if it were 27°C (80°F) and dry. The heat index and the Testing procedure humidex are indices that reflect the combined effect The determination of thermal absorptivity of the fab- of temperature and humidity on the cooling effect of ric in a dry condition requires the use of a special the atmosphere on the human body. industria textila˘ 265 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Porosity calculation RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this study, volumetric approach proposed by Militky This study aims to develop an equation for the pre- and Havrdova has been used to measure the poros- diction of thermal absorptivity using contact area. As ity, as shown in equation 3 discussed in the previous pages, thermal absorptivi-  ty is a function of thermal conductivity and thermaly P = 1 – (3) capacity of a fabric. Thermal capacity is a product ofHW V density and specific heat of a material. We used Where P [1] represents the porosity based on SPSS software to find the regression analysis. WeHW volumetric density,  shows the volume covered by calculated contact area with the help of a micro-y scope, which was fitted inside the camera. For mea- fiber, and V depicts the whole accessible volume. suring contact area, images of the samples have Following prediction equation has been developed been used. These images were taken using electron- for the prediction of contact thermal absorptivity of rib ic microscopes and then images were analyzed. As it knit fabrics. is clear from figure 1, knitted rib has two types of sur- b = bp A (1 – PHW) (4) face. Elevated portion touches the hand when hand is put on the fabric surface. Using these images, ele- where b represents the thermal absorptivity vated area and non-elevated area have been mea- [Ws0.5m–2K–1] of fabric and bp is thermal absorptivity sured, which gave the percentage of contact area of of polyester in solid form, PHW shows porosity [1], rib when it is touched with any human hand or any and A is contact area [1] between human skin and plate we measured distance between the two wales surface of fabric. Porosity and contact area both are (grooves) and thickness of the top of the fins (table unit less values. In this approach, value of thermal 2). absorptivity of polyester was calculated using stan- Correlation between contact area and thermal dard values of thermal conductivity, density and spe- absorptivity cific heat capacity values of polyester in solid form Table 3 shows correlation between contact area and and putting in equation 2 and then the calculated thermal absorptivity. Significance of this correlation is value of thermal absorptivity of polyester in solid form 0.01, which is quite less than 0.05. It proves that is multiplied with the porosity and contact area of knit- there is a significant correlation between contact area ted rib to find thermal absorptivity of rib knit fabrics. and thermal absorptivity. This test supports our find- This is a novel approach, which proves that using this ings that contact area of knitted rib is highly influen- method, thermal absorptivity of any material can be tial on thermal absorptivity. predicted. The porosity of samples used in this study Linear regression model is high due its structure and knit structure has many We applied linear regression model technique to air gaps due to insertion of loop and they can be well have an equation for the prediction of thermal seen in the following images taken from microscope absorptivity. Figure 2 shows that there is a signifi- while measuring the contact area. cant correlation between thermal absorptivity and Table 2 Sample no. Rib type Height Thickness of fins Distance between (a) adjacent wales Contact area Contact (mm) (mm) (grooves) fraction (%)(mm) 1 1x2 2 1.8 2.15 0.46 45.57 2 2x3 2.05 3.4 3.3 0.51 50.75 3 2x1 2 3.3 3 0.52 52.38 4 3x4 2.02 5.15 4.33 0.54 54.32 5 1x1 2.13 2.45 2 0.55 55.06 6 2x2 2 3.4 2.4 0.59 58.62 7 1x1 2 1.47 1 0.6 59.51 8 3x3 2.06 4.9 3.14 0.61 60.95 9 4x4 2.15 6.2 3.3 0.65 65.26 10 2x1 1.96 3.16 1.26 0.71 71.49 11 4x3 2.06 6.3 2 0.76 75.9 12 4x2 2.11 6 1.6 0.79 78.95 13 3x1 2.05 4.7 1.1 0.81 81.03 14 4x1 1.98 5.8 0.7 0.89 89.23 industria textila˘ 266 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 3 Contact Predicted area thermal (%) absorptivity Pearson correlation 1 1.000** Contact area Sig. (2-tailed) .000(%) N 18 18 Predicted Pearson correlation 1.000** 1 thermal Sig. (2-tailed) .000 absorptivity N 18 18 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) contact area of the knitted rib. It is obvious from the Fig. 2. Thermal absorptivity measured R2 values (0.96). It shows that 96.9% changes in thermal absorptivity take place due to changes in the and predicted values of thermal absorptivity. Table 4, contact area. table 5, and table 6 show that their correlation is We applied regression analysis and found that the 0.984 while their p value is 0.836. As p value is model developed is significant. Table 3 shows that greater than 0.05, it shows that there is no significant un-adjusted R square value is 0.870 which shows difference between the two sets of values. that 87 % of data is well explained by the graph and the readings which were measured on ALAMBETA CONCLUSIONS are correlating with each other, which is too high and The suggested model has been used to predict ther- its p-value is 0.000, which is quite less than 0.05 at mal absorptivity values of knitted rib fabric model 95% confidence level. using 100% polyester and exploiting structure of knit- We can write an equation based on the coefficient ted rib fabric. For development of knitted rib fabric, (table 4) in the following way: double-knit rib knitting machine has been used. y = –9.34 + 2.31b (5) Samples were kept under standard conditions and Here y shows the thermal absorptivity while b repre- they were tested using Alambeta. Thermal absorptiv- sents contact area (%). We have compared measured ity was measured by changing the surface area and Table 4 Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients Model t Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constant) –9.341 6.715 –1.391 .183 1 Contact area (%) 2.307 .103 .984 22.350 .000 Table 5 Mean N Std. deviation Std. error mean Measured thermal absorptivity 138.9444 14 24.12095 5.68536 Pair 1 Predicted thermal absorptivity 139.1556 14 23.77817 5.60457 Table 6 N Correlation Sig. Measured thermal absorptivity & Pair 1 14 .984 .000 predicted thermal absorptivity Table 7 Paired differences Std. 95% confidence inter- t df Sig. Mean Std. val of the difference (2-tailed)deviation errormean Lower Upper Measured thermal absorptivity – Pair 1 –.2111 4.24856 1.00139 –2.32387 1.90165 –.211 17 .836 predicted thermal absorptivity industria textila˘ 267 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 hence it has showed a significant result that as the this model can be used for the prediction of thermal contact area is increasing the thermal absorptivity absorptivity of the studied fabrics. Considering this value is also increasing suggested models can be study and keeping in view the application of this model used for prediction of thermal absorptivity of any for the knitted rib manufactured by using 100% poly- material having distinct surface Their thermal absorp- ester can be used for other types of fabrics as well, tivity was measured and finally, the measured values However this study was only done on same yarn but were compared with model values. The results show changing surface area from 45–89 % check the graph that there is a substantial agreement between exper- again which gives manufacturer a clear idea which imental and calculated values. The study shows that contact area is better for both wearer and comfort. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Crow, R.M. Heat and moisture transfer in clothing systems,In: Part 1. Transfer through materials, A literature review. 1974, DTIC Document. [2] Hes, L. and Loghin, C. Heat, moisture and air transfer properties of selected woven fabrics in wet state. In: Journal of Fiber Bioengineering and Informatics, 2009, 2(3), pp. 141–149. [3] Özdil, N., Marmaralı, A., Kretzschmar, S.D. Effect of yarn properties on thermal comfort of knitted fabrics. In: International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 2007, 46(12): pp. 1318–1322. [4] Yamashita, Y., Yamada, H., Miyake, H. Effective thermal conductivity of plain weave fabric and its composite material made from high strength fibers, In: Journal of Textile Engineering, 2008, 54(4), pp. 111–119. [5] Zhu, F., Zhang, W., Song, G. Thermal performance assessment of heat resistant fabrics based on a new thermal wave model of skin heat transfer, In: International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 2006, 12(1), pp. 43–51. [6] Hes, L., Non-destructive determination of comfort parameters during marketing of functional garments and clothing, In: Indian J. Fibre Text. Res, 2008, 33(3), pp. 239–245. [7] Pac, M.J., et al. Warm-cool feeling relative to tribological properties of fabrics, In: Textile Research Journal, 2001, 71(9), pp. 806–812. [8] Olaru, S., et al. Morphological assessment of human body for clothing patterns design, In: DE REDACTIE, 2013, 1, p. 254. [9] Oğlakcioğlu, N., Marmarali, A. Thermal comfort properties of some knitted structures, In: Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 2007, 15(5-6), pp. 64–65. [10] Raja, D., et al. A study on thermal properties of single-jersey knitted fabrics produced from ring and compact folded yarns, In: The Journal of the Textile Institute, 2015, 106(4), pp. 359–365. [11] Varga, K., et al. Physiological investigation of resin-treated fabrics from TENCEL® and other cellulosic fibres, 2008. [12] Varga, K., et al. Physiological investigation of resin-treated fabrics from TENCEL® and other cellulosic fibres, 2009. [13] Stawski, D., et al. Application of the layer-by-layer technique for knitted fabrics/Aplicarea tehnologiei de depunere strat cu strat pe materiale textile tricotate, In: Industria Textila, 2014, 65(4), p. 190. [14] Süpüren, G., et al. Moisture management and thermal absorptivity properties of double-face knitted fabrics, In: Textile Research Journal, 2011: p. 0040517511402122. 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Authors: ASIF ELAHI MANGAT1 LUBOS HES1 VLADIMIR BAJZIKH1 FUNDA BUYUK2 MUDASSAR ABBAS3 1 Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Department of Textile Evaluation 2 Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Textile Clothing Studentska 2, Liberec, 461 17, Czech Republic 3 School of Textile and Design, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan Corresponding author: ASIF MANGAT e-mail: asifmangat@gmail.com industria textila˘ 268 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Absorption and moisture transfer through knitted fabrics made of natural and man-made fibers DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1350 DANIELA NEGRU IONUT DULGHERIU LILIANA BUHU ADRIAN BUHU EMIL LOGHIN REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Absorbția și transferul de umiditate prin materiale tricotate din fibre naturale și artificiale Această lucrare prezintă cercetări legate de evaluarea caracteristicilor care influențează confortul produselor de îmbrăcăminte, și anume: hidrofilia, indicele de vaporizare, higroscopicitatea și porozitatea, în funcție de natura materiei prime (bumbac, măstase artificială și PES) pentru diverse structuri textile tricotate. Tricoturile au fost fabricate din fire de bumbac și diferite amestecuri cu o finețe de Nm54/1. Matricea experimentală a luat în considerare următoarele variabile de intrare: structura tricotului și compoziția firului. În ceea ce privește comportamentul în mediul umed al grupurilor de materiale tricotate, cercetarea experimentală are drept rezultat posibilitatea unei analize complexe asupra hidrofiliei, higroscopicității, permeabilității și porozităţii la vapori. Deoarece confortul fiziologic depinde de toți parametrii analizați, rezultatele conduc la concluzia că toate structurile tricotate analizate și diversele amestecuri utilizate sunt optime pentru articolele de îmbrăcăminte care oferă confort utilizatorului. Cuvinte-cheie: hidrofilicitate, permeabilitate la vapori, higroscopicitate, porozitate, materiale tricotate Absorption and moisture transfer through knitted fabrics made of natural and man-made fibers This paper presents researches related to the assessment of the characteristics that influence the comfort of clothing products, namely: hydrophilicity, vaporization index, hygroscopicity and porosity, depending on the nature of the raw material (cotton, rayon and PES) for various knitted textile structures. The knitted fabrics were made using cotton yarns and various blends with fineness Nm54/1. The experimental matrix took into consideration the following input variables: fabric structure and yarn composition. With regard to the behaviour in the humid environment of groups of knitted fabrics, experimental research results in the possibility of a complex analysis on hydrophilicity, hygroscopicity and vapor permeability and the porosity. Since the physiological comfort depends on all the parameters that were analyzed, the results lead to conclusion that all knitted structures under discussion and various blends used are optimal for garments that provide comfort to wearer. Keywords: hydrophilicity, vapour permeability, hygroscopicity, porosity, knitted fabrics INTRODUCTION on the nature of the fiber [1–2]. Also the porosity of The main focus resulting from this research is the the materials, which represent the percentage of possibility of establishing the scientific role and effect pores in the material, characterizes the volumetric of clothing during physiological processes of the storage capacity of a fluid in a particular environment human body and therefore the possibility to substan- [3]. tiate trough standardized parameters the garment Porosity affects obviously both the absorption and production according to its destination. The complex- desorption of materials and with their voluminosity ity of this problem is due to necessity to orientate the increase grows both the vapour permeability and per- production of clothing, in order to satisfy physiologi- meability to air. A large volume of air represent a high cal demands, given the fact that the content of man- volume of pores, so an additional condition for the made fibres in the structure of modern clothing has maintenance and transport of moisture, favoring at increased considerably. the same time faster drying of skin when intense The textiles fabrics have affinity to moisture when an sweating [2, 4]. Otherwise the feeling of discomfort amount of fluid (i.e. water) is in contact with it. The appears, accompanied by intense cooling of the sur- phenomenon of water penetration inside the fiber is face of the skin, the sticking of wet first layer of cloth- known as absorption, and the adhesion of the liquid ing and the transport of a larger amount of heat from to the fiber surface is called adsorption. It is neces- the surface of the skin and thus increasing the over- sary to take into account that both the moisture of all coefficient of heat transfer, which is dependent materials, as well as their behaviour in the humid directly to the equivalent thermal conductivity coeffi- environment will depend on the nature of the poly- cient [5]. mer, the energy of intermolecular ties, as well as their The presence of water or ice in the pores of the mate- crystallinity. The moisture resulting from perspiration rial leads to a decrease in thermal insulation, i.e. cause heat release and entropy decrease depending thermal resistance, since the coefficient of thermal industria textila˘ 269 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 conductivity increases considerably. And specific account that both wettability index and vaporization heat, which means the capacity of the material to index varies between 0 and 50 g/m2h. absorb heat when the temperature increases, is The characteristics associated with the reaction in directly influenced by the moisture content of the the humid environment cannot be analyzed sepa- material [6–9]. Although behaviour in the humid envi- rately from the influence of the comfort features that ronment is dependent on the structure of the materi- constitute a summary of the physical properties of al, structure of the yarn and nature of fibers, from the textile materials (thermal conductivity, hygroscopicity, physical point of view it is treated under the following hydrophilicity, adsorption-desorption diagrams, reac- aspects: vapour permeability, hydrophilicity, hygro- tion to sweating, air permeability etc.). Comfort is scopicity, reaction to sweating [10]. Although these influenced by the draping, the crease and dimension- characteristics cannot be separated from the physical al stability of textile materials into final products. In properties of the material, they are treated in con- addition, all these features are conditioned by a nection with the human body, in terms of creating the series of structural factors that generate a complex emissions balance results in different conditions, in structure parameter which is porosity and by chemi- this case the activity of the sweat glands. cal treatment of textile surfaces [11]. Differences from Taking into account that as a result of sweating textile surfaces also arise if knitted, woven or removes toxins, unpleasant odors and carbon diox- obtained through unconventional technologies [12]. ide, throughout the clothing in contact with these sur- faces should be placed textile surfaces that influence EXPERIMENTAL WORK skin flora, spaces created having an important role in The yarns used as raw materials for the knitted sam- this respect and to be hydrophilic, hygroscopic and ples were 100% cotton and different blends with PES allow a good passage of vapour. and rayon. These yarns were chosen because they The sweat glands, with a density of about 120 glands/ are most used for garments coming in contact with cm2 (total unfolded surface of the skin to a healthy the skin, including for the cold season. Several vari- adult ranges between 1.5 and 1.7 m2), have the ants of knitted fabrics were made, the categories of capacity to cool the body by evaporation, and clothes yarns used and the knitting patterns being summa- should be chosen so that it can take not only the heat rized in table 1. produced at the surface of the body, but also the The warp knitted fabric was produced on a double amount of moisture released by the skin in case of bar warp knitting machine. The interlock 2 and 3 various daily activities. In choosing the materials for samples have similar stitch density, while sample interlock 1 has a higher stitch density. the realization of a clothing product, must be taken into account that in case of an insensible breath a Vapour permeability is the property of materials to quantity of humidity of about 400 ml per 24 hours is let through water vapor in environments with high rel- removed through the skin, and in the case of a active ative humidity in lower relative humidity environ- secretion determined of hard work, the amount of ments, due to their porous capillary for the textiles. moisture may increase between 3.5 and 5 liter/24 Due to this characteristic, it is possible to remove, by hours. material or garment, moisture from the body surface, The amount of moisture eliminated from the body in especially to its condensed phase. The sample of certain circumstances, can be correlated with the dis- material is fixed on the top of a container (Herfeld 3 tribution of sweat glands on the surface thereof. type glass). The container holds 50 cm of distilled Considering that number of sweat glands is around water, and analyzed assembly is placed in an envi- 120 per cm2, the total number could reach 1.92 mil- ronment with low relative humidity (recommendation is near to 0%). Due to the difference in partial pres- lion if consider the average area of the body 1.6 m2. sure, the vapor formed in the space between the It is also important to know the reactions occurring at water surface and the material will diffuse through the the contact between the moistened skin covered or material to the outside. uncovered and different products that are used in The value of vapor permeability is obtained by calcu- auxiliary finishing textile chemical processes. lating the weight differences of the analyzed Researchers in the field of clothing physiology have ansembly (1): come to the conclusion that maintaining health status is dependent on the possibility of keeping the area of Pv = Mi – Mf , (g) (1) the body dried. It was established that in the utmost where: comfort for clothing, depends on its capacity to carry Mi is the initial mass of the analyzed ansembly (g); fast perspiration by eliminating the moisture between Mf – the final mass of the analyzed ansembly main- body and clothing. It is necessary therefore to con- tened a specific period of time “” in an environ- sider not only the loading with moisture, but also the ment with j = 0%, (g). drying speed, or the time in which the humidity accu- The vaporisation index is calculated with the for- mulated will be ceded. Up to certain effort limits can mula (2): be established a strong link between the above Pv g values and the possibility of taking the moisture given m = , (2) S ·  ( 2 ) off by the body through clothing structure, taking into v m h industria textila˘ 270 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 1 Fabric Sectional wale representation 2of knitted fabric Fibrous composition Mass (g/m ) interlock 1 67 % cotton / 33 % rayon 195 interlock 2 100 % cotton 140 interlock 3 50 % polyester / 50 % rayon 150 single jersey with miss 75 % cotton / 25 % polyester 190 stitches single jersey with cross 100 % cotton 135 miss single jersey with miss 100 % cotton 100 stitches single jersey 100 % cotton 120 warp knitted fabric - 78 % cotton / 22 % polyamide 250 where: device. For each sample there is a graduated scale Pv is vapour permeability of the material [g]; for reading the height of rising water level, measured Sv – the surface of the glass covered with the textile from its container level. The samples are cut to the material [m2]; length of 280 ± 2 mm and a width of 30 ± 1 mm, four  – the time of exposure to a environment with 0% rel- in each direction of knitting fabric (wale and course). ative humidity [h]. The test samples were originally conditioned. The Hydrophilicity is a body’s ability to absorb water. samples are immersed in water at least 20 mm. The The textile material generally has a porous surface water rise in samples and the reading of the height of which has a high content of air, which in the process ascent value of 10 to 10 minutes up to 30 minutes of wetting is removed from the micro or macro capil- represent the value of hydrophilicity. laries by the water. Hydrophilicity was determined by The materials used in the production of clothing must a method based on the principle of capillarity, know- be hygroscopic. Material’s ability to absorb or to yield ing that the fabrics can be treated with systems more or to withhold water vapor is called hygroscopicity. or less homogeneous capillaries. The method con- To ensure hygienic conditions and thermo-physiolog- sists in following the rise of the water in the sample of ical comfort to worn clothing, textiles (mainly those textile material partially immersed in the water. Water for the first layer) must have a minimum moisture penetrates through the pores within the structure of content of 6%, in standard atmospheric conditions. the fiber, yarn and textile surface analyzed respec- The samples with the sizes of 10×10 cm2, precon - tively. For testing it used a stand which consists of a ditioned, remain a time () in a tightly closed humid container with distilled water and a sample suspension environment (exicator). To analyze the influence of industria textila˘ 271 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 the duration of time in wet environment, the samples ga – the apparent density of the textile material are conditioned prior to F = 65% relative humidity, [g/cm3]. and then maintained at relative humidity of F = 100% The apparent density of textile material is determined weighed at time intervals of 30 minutes. The value of with the formula: higroscopicity can be calculated as a relative indica- tor which indicates the proportion of the mass of Mg 2a = , (g/cm ) (6) vapor absorbed (yielded or retained) in the total mass 1000 · d of the sample (3): where: M – M M is mass per unit area [g/cm 2]; H 1= 2 · 100, (%) (3) d – the thickness of the material [mm]. M2 The relative density of textile material is determined Where: with the formula: M1 is the mass of the conditioning sample [g]; Ms · gl M2 – the mass of the sample mantained in an envi- gr = , (g/cm2) (7) M – M ronment with a specific relative humidity [g]. 2 1 Since the hygroscopicity of materials is dependent on where: the surface exposed to the environment, and also the Ms is the mass of the sample [g]; 3 duration of maintaining in the environment, it can be gl – the density of toluene 0,871 [g/cm ]; appreciated by an indicator that reports the amount M1 – the mass of the picnometer with toluene [g]; of vapor (mass difference) per unit area and per unit M2 – the mass of the picnometer with toluene plus time, which is the absolute indicator of wettability (4), the sample [g]. iH [g/m 2h]: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS M – M i = 1 2 · t, (g/m2h) (4) The paper develops the theoretical aspects of someH S important parameters characterizing the behaviour in where: the humid environment and experimental research S is the surface of the sample [m 2]; on several groups of knits, highlights achievements t – the time while the sample is mainained in moist that have allowed some interpretations, marked by environment [h]. the limits shown in graphs, histograms and related The porosity can be defined as the ratio between tables. the mass of air contained in the fabric under some In order to highlight how the fiber composition and pressure and mass of material without air. The poros- structure changes over time, values for recorded ity is a very important feature of comfort that is part of parameters (hydrophilicity, vaporization index, hygro- the physiological properties of clothing, depending on scopicity and hygroscopicity index) were summarized the raw material fiber composition, the value of twist, in table 2, which correspond to eight types of knitted the fineness of the yarns and the knitt pattern and fabrics made from yarn with fineness Nm 54/1. also the chemical treatments of textile surfaces. The Because these features depend on porosity, this porosity is determined using the picnometric method parameter was also established. and is calculated with the formula (5): The experimental matrix took into consideration the g – g following input variables: fabric structure and yarn Pz = r a · 100, (%) (5) g composition.r Experimental results regarding the hydrophilicity refer where: to the same group of materials as in the case of gr is relative density of the textile material [g/cm 3]; vapour permeability and are contained in table 2, and Table 2 Hydrophilicity h [cm] HygroscopicityVaporization Porosity Fabric Wale Course index m IH Pz [min] [min] [g/m2h] H [%][%] [g/m2h] 10 20 30 10 20 30 interlock 1 8.2 10.6 12.6 7.9 9.6 19.2 20.77 8.4 0.764 73.48 interlock 2 5.7 6.6 7.65 4.0 5 5.25 8.02 6.7 0.289 80.04 interlock 3 7.5 9 12.25 4.5 7 8.75 8.78 6.3 0.227 69.47 interlock with miss stitches 6 7 7.45 6.8 7.9 8.4 19.36 5.4 0.324 80.12 single jersey with cross miss 5.8 7.3 8.4 5.3 6.9 8.1 5.57 7.3 0.236 78.85 single jersey with miss stitches 4.8 5.7 6.6 4 4.5 5.85 6.63 8.7 0.24 81.37 single jersey 5 5.5 5.96 3 3.1 3.35 11.29 12 0.122 75.55 warp knitted fabric 6.2 8.4 9.15 4.8 6.3 7.9 8.41 6.8 0.464 81.41 industria textila˘ 272 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 1. Hydrophilicity histogram Fig. 3. Hygroscopicity histogram Fig. 2. Index of vaporization Fig. 4. Porosity histogram the histogram in figure 1. Hydrophilicity has close val- Hydrophilicity maximum values give us information ues on the two sides, which is a slight increase in the regarding the optimal structure of the fabric, which sense of knitting, i.e. the wale direction. could be a simple interlock or interlock with miss The values given in table 2 and the histogram in fig- stitches; the maximum value is obtained for a blend ure 2 show how the more fibrous composition can of cotton and rayon, knowing that rayon has a special result in increased vaporization index. behavior in wet conditions. Lower hydrophilicity val- Experimental results regarding the hygroscopicity ues were noted for cotton knits with single jersey and hygroscopicity index are presented in table 2, the structure, so from the standpoint of this parameter is elements of comparison resulting also from the his- not sufficient to use a hydrophilic raw material, but togram shown in figure 3, which highlights the limits also the structure used plays an important role. on hygroscopicity of cotton materials or cotton type. High hygroscopicity values have proven interlock Discussions relating to the vapour permeability, knits from cotton and rayon blends and single jersey hydrophilicity and hygroscopicity are associated with knits from 100% cotton. However, a value of hygro- porosity (table 1). The histogram in figure 4 allows scopicity more than 6% is accepted, and it can be comparative analyses between the knitted structures observed on interlock knit from 100% cotton, a close considered. value can be seen in the structure interlock with the The minimum value of hydrophilicity (3 cm) was fiber composition of 50% polyester and 50% rayon. obtained for a single jersey knit from 100% cotton yarn. The maximum value (19.2 cm) was obtained for So this blend can replace successfully cotton yarns. an interlock knit pattern from 67% cotton and 33% Values higher than 6% are observed in all knitted rayon yarns. The vaporization index ranged between structures and all combinations of fiber blends, 5.57 g/m2h for cross miss single jersey knit from unless for interlock with miss stitches, which can be 100% cotton yarn and 20.77 g/m2h for the interlock attributed to the polyester fibers and to the structure knit from 67% cotton and 33% rayon yarn. In terms of that shows the miss stitches, resulting in a lower spe- hygroscopicity, it has values ranging from 5.4% to cific weight and hence a reduced ability to yield/ interlock with miss stitches knit from 75% cotton and absorb water vapor from/to ambient environment. 25% polyester yarn and 12% for single jersey knit Values higher than 50% for porosity indicates good from 100% cotton yarn. Minimum and maximum capacity to maintain and transport moisture while porosity values are 69.47% and 81.41%, corre- favoring faster dry skin to intense sweating, noticing sponding to interlock knit from 50% polyester and that all structures analyzed shows high porosity, which 50% rayon yarns, respectively single jersey with miss make them optimal for use in garments that come in stitches knit from 100% cotton yarns. direct contact with skin. Note that the maximum industria textila˘ 273 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 porosity was obtained for single jersey with miss conducting a case study, given the multitude of fac- stitches with 100% cotton. tors that determine behavior in the humid environ- Since the physiological comfort depends on all the ment of fabrics, as well as the creation of this envi- parameters that were analyzed, it can be concluded ronment in terms of wearing. that all knitted structures under discussion and vari- With regard to the behavior in the humid environment ous blends used are optimal for garments that pro- of groups of knits made of cotton type yarn with the vide comfort to wearer. same fineness, experimental research results in the possibility of a complex analysis on hydrophilicity, CONCLUSIONS hygroscopicity and vapor permeability; at the same The human body gives out, through the sweat, an time stands the porosity, which in case of knits has important quantity of moisture, even in rest condi- values that may exceed 80%. Porous structure with tions, which if it stays on the skin’s surface, would higher values in knits, compared to other textile sur- negatively influence the biological balance of the faces increases the moisture content no matter body. The clothes must be consistently favorable whether it is liquid or vapor form. It also noted a environment to eliminate the moisture, as well as decrease in the index of evaporation which increases other harmful emissions. Thus, between the amounts the material’s compactness. The appreciation of the of moisture gave it by the body under certain condi- limits of those parameters must be taken into account tions and its ability of storing and transport by cloth- for the purpose of articles of clothing and also the ing products there must be a close connection. weight of those characteristics studied in quality of Therefore, a comprehensive study was required, and fabrics and clothes. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Mitu, S., Hâncu, S., Căprariu, C., Capmare, L., Ţuca, M. Heat and mass transfer through clothing, In: Industria Textila, 2007, vol. 58 (5), pp. 178–185. [2] Vircan, A., Ionesi, D., Mitu, S., Dabija, A., Capmare, L. Interdependence between anthropometric parameters specific for the age group 7–10 years, In: Industria Textila, 2013, vol. 64, Issue 4, pp. 188–194. [3] Sekkeli, M., Kececioglu O. Scada based an energy saving approach to operation of stenter machine in a textile plant using waste heat recovery system, In: Tekstil ve Konfeksiyon, 2012, Issue 3, pp. 248–257. [4] Lefter, C., Maier, S., Maier, V., Popa, M., Desbrieres, J. Engineering preliminaries to obtain reproducible mixtures of atelocollagen and polysaccharides, In: Mater. Sci. Eng. C. Mater. Biol. Appl., 2013, vol. 33, Issue 4, pp. 2323–2331. [5] Oğlakcioğlu, N., Marmarali, A. Thermal comfort properties of cotton knitted fabrics in dry and wet states, In: Tekstil ve Konfeksiyon, 2010, vol. 20, Issue 3, pp. 213–217. [6] Dulgheriu, I., Cozmanciuc, C. Mecanical tests carried out on composite materials specific to safety jackets, In: Industria Textila, 2012, Vol. 63, Issue 2, pp. 97–104. [7] Matenciuc, C.C., Dulgheriu, I. Quality evaluation model for cloting materials, In: Industria Textila, 2011, vol. 62, Issue 2, pp. 99–104. [8] Iorgoaea-Guignard, M., Fărîmă, D., Ciobanu, L., Ciocoiu, M., Giraud, S., Campagne, C., Broască-Asavei, G. Comfort properties of knitted fabrics with massaging effects, In: Industria Textila, 2013, volume 64, Issue 1, pp. 34–39. [9] Abramiuc D., Popescu, C., Dunca, S., Muresan, A. Improving cotton textile materials properties by treating with chitosan and metallic salts, In: Industria Textila, 2013, vol. 64, Issue 4, pp. 204–209. [10] Oglakcioglu, N., Marmarali, A. Thermal comfort properties of some knitted structures, In: Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 2007, vol. 15, no. 5–6, pp. 94–96. [11] Ozçelik, G., Çay, A., Kirtey, E. A study of the thermal properties of textured knitted fabrics, In: Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 2007, vol. 15, no. 1(60), pp. 55–60. [12] Frydrych, I., Dziworska, G., Bilska, J. Comparative analysis of the thermal insulation properties of fabrics made of natural and man-made cellulose fibres, In: Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 2002, pp. 40–44. Authors: DANIELA NEGRU1, LILIANA BUHU1, EMIL LOGHIN1, IONUT DULGHERIU1 ADRIAN BUHU1 1 «Gheorghe Asachi» Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Textiles, Leather and Industrial Management Corresponding author: DANIELA NEGRU dnegru@tex.tuiasi.ro industria textila˘ 274 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 The role of microcapsules in masking bad odors of cotton fabrics DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1289 TÜLAY GÜLÜMSER REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Rolul microcapsulelor în mascarea mirosurilor neplăcute ale țesăturilor de bumbac Interesul consumatorilor pentru materialele textile funcționale și inovatoare este în creștere. Textilele parfumate cu efect de lungă durată reprezintă unul dintre aceste produse populare care reușesc să mascheze mirosurile neplăcute. Tehnologia de microîncapsulare este foarte avantajoasă pentru utilizarea textilelor care eliberează parfumuri pe termen lung. În acest studiu, microcapsule parfumate au fost aplicate pe țesături de bumbac. Au fost analizate capacitatea de mascare a mirosurilor neplăcute, rezistenţa la spălare şi rezistenţa în timp a parfumurilor. Rezultatele indică faptul că microcapsulele ar putea combate diverse mirosuri neplăcute, cum ar fi mirosul de ceapă și pește. Cuvinte-cheie: microcapsule, parfum, textile inovatoare, mascarea mirosului neplăcut The role of microcapsules in masking bad odors of cotton fabrics The interest of consumers for functional and innovative textile materials is increasing. Long lasting perfumed textiles are one of these popular products and they are successful in masking the unpleasant smells. Microcapsulation technology is very advantageous in order to provide long-term fragrance releasing textiles. In this study ready-made fragranced microcapsules were applied to cotton fabrics. Stink-masking ability, resistance to washing and strength of the fragrances were inspected. The results indicate that microcapsules could overcome some bad odors such as onion and fish smells. Keywords: Microcapsule, fragrance, innovative textiles, stink masking INTRODUCTION modern synthetic organic chemistry enlarged the Breathing is vital, humans cannot live without breath- number of compounds that can be used in perfumes ing. A person inhales smell molecules with every besides volatile organic molecules isolated from breath so smelling has a different place in our lives. plants and other natural sources. Perfumes are gen- In a day, approximately over 23,000 breaths are erally complex mixtures of a broad variety of natural taken and tiny molecules of scents enters in our body, or synthetic fragrance raw materials with a multitude that makes smelling involuntary. Even when a person of chemical functional groups such as alcohols, alde- sleeps he smells. Of the five senses, only our sense hydes, ketones, esters, lactones, ethers, and nitriles of smell is linked directly to the limbic lobe of the [4–5]. brain, our emotional control center. Fear, anxiety, As the fragrance production technology developed, depression, anger, and joy all emanate from this fragrances are considered normal components of region of the brain [1–2]. everyday lives. People feel the need to wear a fra- Although humans’ odor detection ability is lower than grance in order to feel good. Today, fragrances animals, a person can feel approximately 10,000 dif- enhance the quality of life, and researchers claim that ferent odor molecules. Smell is directly related with the use of fragrance can have a strong psychological the sense of taste; most of the taste of the foods can- impact, boosting and altering moods, keeping people not be detected if capacity of smell is lost. Today taste alert, providing a feeling of calmness, and may even enjoyment and using perfumes for various reasons enhance the learning process and alleviate stress. occupy our smell sense unlike its duty of saving from Perfumes have a widely usage areas in personal and dangers which was more important for humans in the household products such as creams, lotions, deter- past. Perfumery industry has been growing more and gents, softeners and many other. They are mainly more as interest on fragrance increases. Fragrance used to neutralize the unpleasant odors. Many peo- is taking place not only in perfumes but also in many ple apply perfume on clothes not only to mask products to attract the attention of consumers and unpleasant smells but also to protect themselves make them wish to buy those products. Fragrance from perfumes that are not good for skin and body. To may be used as an additive in food, drinks, deter- increase the durability of fragrances many studies gents, soaps, household cleaners, fabric softeners, have been made. One of the techniques that provide cigarettes etc. Smelling good can also be a sign of long lasting usage capabilities is microcapsulation. It cleaning with fresh fragrances [3]. can also meet the demands such as user-friendli- For many ages the pleasantness of the smell of many ness, manufacturability and ecological considera- natural products has attracted humans. Our ances- tions [4, 6–8]. tors in ancient Egypt and Greece developed the first Microencapsulation is the coating of small solid parti- methods to extract odorants from different natural cles, liquid droplets, or gas bubbles with a thin film of sources. The developments of extraction methods coating or shell material. Microencapsulation can lead to the creation of the fine fragrances. Then modify the color, shape, volume, apparent density, industria textila˘ 275 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 reactivity, durability, pressure sensitivity, heat sensi- the capsules and releasing more scent), and durabil- tivity, and photosensitivity of the encapsulated sub- ity of fragranced microcapsules to washing. stance. By this technology it is also possible to pre- In this research, cotton fabrics were treated to have serve a substance in a finely divided state, and some bad odors and scent microcapsules were used release the substance from the enclosed capsule to mask these bad odors. When talking about bad as required. There are many fields of application odors, fried fish and roasted onion comes to mind and industries using microcapsulation. Increasing esp. to the persons dealing with cooking. In daily life, research and development activities about this tech- most of the people complain about these odors after nology is producing a steadily increasing number of cooking or eating in a room full of these smells. The commercially successful products that utilize micro- effectiveness and durability of scent microcapsules capsules. Encapsulated perfumes and flavors con- were tested against these odors. tain a coating of scent-filled capsules which break and release scent when the insert is torn open. This EXPERIMENTAL PART product is widely used as a marketing tool, primarily Materials for new perfumes. The storage life of a volatile com- pound can be increased markedly by microencapsu- Plain weaved and scoured 100% cotton fabric was lation. Active agents like scents, essential oils, or per- used. The specifications are: 2 fumes which are used in these products often lose weight: 120 g/m ; yarn/cm: in the weft direction: their activity while being stored or immediately during 55 yarns/cm, in the warp direction: 30 yarns/cm; yarn usage. Many flavors and fragrance compounds can number: weft yarn: 42 Ne, warp yarn: 45 Ne. be prevented from evaporating by microencapsula- Cotton fabric pieces that would be used in the exper- tion [9–26]. iments were cut as 20 cm × 20 cm. Microencapsulation is an effective technique to con- Microcapsule and binder were supplied from a trol the release of fragrances and to produce more national supplier, NUY Tekstil San. ve Dış Tic. Ltd. durable fragrant finishing on textiles. The application Şti. in slurry (viscous mixture containing high con- of microcapsules into textiles presents also several centration of microcapsules) form. advantages in terms of fragrance performance and Microcapsules contained 30–40% fragrance, 35–45% health benefits: reduces perfume dermatitis in dry extracts and pH = 7–9. The size of the capsules humans and protects the fragrance material from was 4–6 µm. The fragrance of the microcapsules was aggressive external agents or media. Such kind of designed as to give freshness. It was claimed that innovative textile product is designed, from the begin- (statement needs revision) this design was made in ning, as a luxury product. Thus, although the incor- order to mask unpleasant odors rather than to give poration of a fragrance scent will make it more perfume effect, but have a fresh feeling. The extract expensive, it will also make the product more valu- was composed of: pomegranate, bergamot, orange able and exclusive. Using this technique, the encap- blossom, apple, juniper and musk. sulated perfume will be released upon breakage of Application solution was prepared step by step. First the microcapsules. During the daily use of the suit, binder was put in pure water and mixed. The solution fragrances will diffuse into the air and release a should not be below 25° C. Slurry form of microcap- pleasant smell by this way. To evaluate this product, sule was added to the binder solution by mixing 30 the durability of the odor is important and should be minutes. evaluated because they will face abrasion, washing, In washing trials ECE Reference Detergent: Non- and dry cleaning and similar activities. Nowadays, phosphate Reference Detergent (A) – Base powder the perfume encapsulation technology is being used without optical brightener agent SDC, Type 2 was used. for the development of innovative textile products in To get fried fish and roasted onion odors, anchovy fish order to offer a long-lasting fragrance release. The and onion were supplied from a local supermarket. microcapsules can be applied by stamping works, exhaustion dyeing, impregnation, spraying and coat- Method ing. Besides, microcapsules can be incorporated in In order to test the capability of microcapsules to the fiber directly without modifying its touch and color mask the bad odors of cotton fabrics, two methods [27–39]. were applied: The microencapsulation of essential oils has led to 1) Microcapsules were applied to the cotton fabrics many novel applications, including children’s gar- and then fabrics were exposed to the odors of fish ments, hosiery, sheets, towels, cushions, fragrant ties and onion. and shoe insoles, as a consequence not only of the 2) Cotton fabrics were exposed to the odors of fish pleasant smell of the essential oils released but also and onion and then microcapsules were applied to of the wide variety of therapeutic benefits. Some of the cotton fabrics. them help with insomnia, some provide relief from Application of microcapsules to the cotton fab- respiratory problems, some stimulate mental and rics: some of them give antimicrobial effect [11]. Two different methods were tried to apply the micro- By applying scented microcapsules to the textile capsules to the cotton fabrics: materials, olfactory tests are in a new state, deter- Exhaust method: Treatments were made at 40°C for mining the amount of odors after rubbing (breaking 20 minutes with a L.R= 1:20. Thermal laboratory type industria textila˘ 276 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 dyeing machine was used. A recipe of 0.6 g/l micro- 7–8: Very High Scented (very strong). capsule and 0.25 g/l binder was applied by the advice Assessment of perfume intensity was made for 8 fab- of the chemical producer for exhausting. rics before rubbing and after rubbing in order to feel Padding method: Fabrics were impregnated by AF: the effects of microcapsules. The same assessments 80%, dried at 80°C for 3 minutes and fixed at 120°C were made after washing to the cotton fabrics again for 2 minutes. Ernst Benz Laboratory type foulard, to test the durability of microcapsules to washing. ATAC GK 40 Laboratory type stenter were used. Washing tests: The recommendation of the chemical producer for In order to test the durability of scented microcap- padding is a recipe of 2–8 g/l microcapsule and sules to washing conditions and the abilities of mask- 0,8–2,5 g/l binder, so following experimental design ing bad odors after washing, fabrics that were treat- was composed (table 1): ed with microcapsules and bad odors in two ways were washed in Atlas Linitest Plus laboratory type Table 1 washing device successively 5 cycles. In these cycles rinsing was applied, but drying was not made. The Trial Microcapsule Binder concentration fabrics were washed by 4 g/l ECE detergent at 40°Cconcentration (g/l) (g/l) for 30 minutes. 1 2 2.5 Surface characterization Scanning Electron 2 4 1.8 Microscope (SEM): 3 4 2.5 Surface characterization of the samples was made 4 6 0.8 by SEM Analysis by using Phillips XL- 30S FEG type 5 6 1.8 electron microscope. The fabric samples were coat- 6 6 2.5 ed with gold in order to provide max. 20 nm of con- 7 ductivity.8 1.8 Statistical evaluation: 8 8 2.5 The results were evaluated statistically by SAS pro- gram. The evaluations were made according to the Application of bad odors to the cotton fabrics: least significant difference. The application of these odors was performed in a closed glass cabinet (75 × 70 × 45 cm) with a rod in RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS it to hang fabrics. I. Determination of recipes Fried fish odor: 350 gr. of anchovy fish was fried in In this part of the study, the recipes for padding and a Philips Deep fryer at 160° C for 7 minutes. This exhausting method were tried in order to decide the deep fryer was put in the cabinet during frying and recipes to be used in application of bad odors. the cotton fabrics were hanged down from the rod in The presence of microcapsules was detected by the cabinet to absorb the odors. Roasted onion odor: Scanning electron microscope (SEM). 100 gr. onion was roasted in a After the application of microcapsule and binder to pan full of 20 ml of olive oil over a hot plate for 5 min- the cotton fabrics in different methods and concen- utes. This pan was put in the cabinet during roasting trations, SEM images were taken. SEM images of and the cotton fabrics were hanged down from the applied padding recipes are given in figure 1–4, SEM rod in the cabinet to absorb the odors. Panel Tests: image of applied exhausting recipe is given in figure 5. All the tests were performed by trained experienced panelists who had minimum 10 years in the evalua- tion & execution of objective tests (perfume intensity and softness etc.). The panelists are trained at regu- lar intervals by fragrance experts to maintain their acuity. The training was recently validated by Firmenich, an international producer of perfumery and flavor chemicals since 1895. The evaluation group for this study was composed of 20 female indi- viduals with high olfaction endowment. The testers all worked in a Research and Development Center deal- ing with textiles. It was forbidden for the evaluators to smoke and to drink coffee during the test day upon the advice of Firmenich. Scent evaluation: The assessments of the scent of the cotton fabrics were done by panelists after smelling the samples with the in-house scale below: 0: Scentless 1–2: Light Scented (very low) 3–4: Fair Scented Fig. 1. SEM images of 2 g/L microcapsule and 2.5 g/L 5–6: High Scented (strong) binder applied fabrics (1000 x) industria textila˘ 277 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 2. SEM images of 4 g/L microcapsule, 1.8 g/L binder (left, 1000 x) and 2.5 g/L binder (right, 400 x) applied fabrics Fig. 3. SEM images of 6 g/L microcapsule, 0.8 g/L binder (upper left) and 1.8 g/L binder (upper right) and 2.5 g/L binder (down) applied fabrics with a magnification of (1000 x) industria textila˘ 278 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 4. SEM images of 8 g/L microcapsule, 1.8 g/L binder (left) and 2.5 g/L binder (right) applied fabrics with a magnification of (1000 x) In figure 1, the microcapsules are very few because of the application of microcapsules in low concentra- tion. In figure 2, the dimensions and distributions of the microcapsules are similar, but there is not a remark- able increase in the quantity of microcapsules over the fabrics. The increase of the binder concentration does not seem to have a positive effect. In figure 3, it is obvious that microcapsules are dis- tributed homogenously over the fabrics. There seems no difference about the dimensions and forms of the capsules. When these images of figure 3 are com- pared with the ones of figure 1 and 2, the amounts of microcapsules increase as the concentration of micro capsules increase. The increase of binder con- centrations also has a positive effect over the trans- fer of microcapsules to the fabrics. Especially the dif- ference between 0.8 g/L and 2.5 g/L binder concen- tration is remarkable. In figure 4, the microcapsules seem to have similar Fig. 5. SEM images of fabrics treated with exhausting dimensions and forms. The change of binder con- method (1000 x) centration does not affect the amount of microcap- sules transferred to the fabric. But it is obvious that recipes. 8 treated fabrics’ scents were then evaluated there are more microcapsules than the concentra- by the panel tests before and after washing. In these tions of 2 g/L and 4 g/L. There is no significant differ- evaluations, the grades were taken before rubbing ence between the microcapsule concentrations of and after rubbing to determine the effect of micro- 6 g/L and 8 g/L. So for the studies with padding capsules. The average values were taken and Least method microcapsule concentrations of 2 g/L and Significant Difference (LSD) values were given. 6 g/L were chosen with the constant binder concen- Scents were evaluated by means of bad odor and tration of 2.5 g/L. perfume intensity. At the end of the studies made with exhausting Fabrics were coded by the treatments: method, the physical appearance of the microcap- • O2M: Fabric, exposed to the onion odor and then sules did not change, but the amount of microcap- 2 g/L microcapsules were applied; sules applied to the fabrics seemed less than the • O6M: Fabric, exposed to the onion odor and then ones applied with padding method. So the trials went on with padding method. 6 g/L microcapsules were applied; • M2O: Fabric, applied 2 g/L microcapsules and then II. Evaluation exposed to the onion odor; At this step, fabrics were treated with bad odors and • M6O: Fabric, applied 6 g/L microcapsules and then microcapsules as described above with the chosen exposed to the onion odor. industria textila˘ 279 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Same coding was made for the fabrics exposed to The increase of microcapsules increased the per- the fish odor. fume’s odor of both washed and unwashed fabrics. Washed fabrics were coded by adding “W” to the end The result is similar before and after rubbing. of the previous code. Panel tests are given in figures 6–9. In addition to the evaluations described above, Microcapsules applied after exposing to the bad odor panel test was also applied to the cotton fabrics are more effective in decreasing bad odors. (table 2–5) that had only bad odors (without scented When washing results are compared, perfume odors microcapsule application). The average grades are: are still effective after rubbing, but it can be said that fabric for the onion odor: 7, fabric for the fish odor: 7.25 the values of bad and perfume odor are both lower. When onion and fish odors are compared generally, During washing some of the capsules are cracked by it can be pointed out that it is harder to mask fish odor. the mechanical effect of washing. Table 2 Table 4 Least Perfume Perfume Bad Bad Least Perfume Perfume Bad Bad Onion signifi- before after odor odor Fish signifi- odor odorcant dif- rubbing rubbing before after cant dif- before after ference rubbing rubbing ference rubbing rubbing before after rubbing rubbing O2M 0.958 1.900 7.700 5.200 0.800 O2MW 1.489 2.300 5.600 1.700 1.600 O6M 1.361 3.500 7.800 4.400 0.500 O6MW 1.219 3.100 6.800 2.000 0.500 M2O 1.496 2.800 7.500 4.900 1.100 M2OW 0.907 2.500 5.700 1.500 0.900 M6O 0.799 3.100 7.600 4.500 0.700 M6OW 0.982 2.600 5.900 1.500 0.400 Fig. 6. Panel test results of onion odor Fig. 8. Panel test results of onion odor after washing Table 3 Table 5 Onion Least Perfume Perfume Bad Bad Fish Leastsignifi- odor odor signifi- Perfume Perfume Bad Bad wash- before after wash- before after odor odor ing cant dif- rubbing rubbing before after ing cant dif- rubbing rubbing before afterference rubbing rubbing ference rubbing rubbing F2M 1.122 1.700 7.000 6.100 1.700 F2MW 1.397 1.900 4.600 2.500 1.000 F6M 1.105 1.900 7.200 5.900 1.000 F6MW 1.277 2.500 6.400 1.900 0.800 M2F 1.565 2.600 5.800 5.800 2.200 M2FW 1.357 2.100 5.000 2.100 1.300 M6F 1.140 4.600 7.900 4.800 1.000 M6F 1.220 2.200 5.800 1.700 0.500 Fig. 7. Panel test results of fish odor Fig. 9. Panel test results of fish odor after washing industria textila˘ 280 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 CONCLUSIONS release properties. It is advantageous to apply micro- Fragranced textiles are at the focus of consumer capsules into textiles in terms of fragrance perfor- interest in recent years. These fragranced textiles mance and health benefits. have many usage fields such as apparel, fashion In this study, the masking abilities of scent microcap- accessories, shoes, and bags. They are accepted as sules were tried over bad odors such as onion and new and innovative by consumers. Finishing textile fish. Durability and performance of odors were evalu- materials with long-term fragrance-releasing proper- ated against washing and rubbing. The order of ties is an attractive commercial aim, as well as a sig- applying odors was also tried. It was concluded that nificant textile chemical and engineering challenge. intensive bad odors could be overcome by the appli- Microencapsulation is a technique that enables the cation of chosen fragranced microcapsules to the persistence of fragrances over textiles with controlled cotton fabrics. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Becker, R.A. 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Authors: TÜLAY GÜLÜMSER Ege University Textile Engineering Department, Turkey Corresponding author: TÜLAY GÜLÜMSER tulay.gulumser@ege.edu.tr industria textila˘ 282 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Study on the use of textiles to manufacture mattresses in order to prevent decubitus ulcers due to post-fracture immobilization syndrome in the elderly patient DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1376 CLAUDIA-CAMELIA BURCEA MARIUS IVAȘCU CONSTANTIN CIUCUREL RĂZVAN PETCA COSMIN MEDAR AIDA PETCA MARIA GLENCORA COSTACHE LUMINIŢA GEORGESCU LILIANA PĂDURE CLAUDIA NICULESCU REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Studiu privind utilizarea materialelor textile pentru confecționarea saltelelor în prevenirea escarelor de decubit din cadrul sindromului de imobilizare postfracturi la pacientul vârstnic Lucrarea prezintă un studiu experimental și rezultatele acestuia privind optimizarea strategiilor de intervenţie în sindroamele de imobilizare prin identificarea combinaţiilor dintre programele de recuperare funcțională şi pro ce - durile/metodele moderne de profilaxie și/sau tratament cu accent pe analiza eficienței utilizării saltelelor antiescară ca mijloc terapeutic. Experimentul s-a realizat pe două grupe, o grupă experimentală şi o grupă martor, ambele cuprinzând câte 10 subiecți cu fracturi ale articulaţiei șoldului. Programul de profilaxie aplicat a fost diferit: La lotul martor a fost aplicată terapia kinetică obişnuită, iar la lotul experimental s-a aplicat pe lângă programul kinetic și un program de prevenire a complicaţiilor generale ce apar în perioada de imobilizare prin utilizarea saltelelor și pernelor antiescară, purtarea de botoșei (pernițe) antiescară pentru călcâie, folosirea îmbrăcămintei și lenjeriei de pat din bumbac. Saltelele antiescară utilizate au fost din spumă cu înaltă elasticitate și densitate foarte mare (HR35), cu piese crenelate detașabile, pernele antiescară au fost din spumă tip CMHR, cu densitate de 38–40 Kg/mc, cu duritate de 200 Newtoni, iar la pacienții cu risc mare și mediu de apariție a escarelor s-a utilizat salteaua antiescară dinamică, cu pompă de presiune alternantă, salteaua antiescară din PVC pneumatică cu compartimente cilindrice și compresor de presiune alternantă. Toate saltelele au fost acoperite cu un material impermeabil, respirabil, antifungic, antialergenic si ignifug. De asemenea, pacienții au utilizat îmbrăcăminte și lenjerie de pat din fibre de bumbac, cu țesătură cu desime mare și au fost folosite aleze, în special în cazul persoanelor cu incontinență urinară. În urma experimentului s-a constatat regresul în evoluția escarelor sau limitarea expansiunii lor, în lotul experimental, ca o consecință a utilizării saltelelor antiescară din spumă cu înaltă elasticitate și densitate mare și a alezelor absorbante. Cuvinte-cheie: fractură, saltea antiescară, spuma poliuretan, recuperare, textile funcționalizate Study on the use of textiles to manufacture mattresses in order to prevent decubitus ulcers due to post-fracture immobilization syndrome in the elderly patient This work presents a pilot study and its results regarding the optimization of intervention strategies in the immobilization syndromes by identifying combinations between functional rehabilitation programs and modern procedures/methods for prophylaxis and/or treatment, focusing on the analysis of the effectiveness of anti-bedsore mattresses as therapeutic means. The experiment was conducted on two samples, experimental and control, both consisting of 10 subjects each with hip joint fractures. The prophylaxis programme applied was different: usual kinetic therapy was used on the control sample, and the experimental sample underwent, apart from the kinetic programme, a prevention programme related to general complications arising during the immobilization period by using anti-bedsore mattresses and pillows, wearing anti-bedsore boots (cushions) for heel protection, using cotton clothing and bed linens. The anti-bedsore mattresses used were made of high density and elastic foam (HR35), with detachable castellated parts, the anti-bedsore pillows were made of foam type CMHR with density applied of 38–40 Kg/mc with hardness of 200 Newton, and for the patients at high and average risk of developing bedsore, the dynamic anti-bedsore mattress was used with an alternating pressure pump, the pneumatic PVC anti-bedsore mattress featuring cylindrical compartments and alternating pressure compressor. All mattresses were covered by an impermeable material, breathable, antifungal, antiallergenic and uninflammable. Also, patients were given cotton fiber clothing and bed linens, with dense fabric and absorbent bed pads, especially for people with urinary incontinence. Following this experiment, the regression or, at least, limiting, of bedsores evolution was found in the experimental sample, as a consequence of using anti-bedsore mattresses made of high density and elastic foam and absorbent bed pads. Keywords: fracture, anti-bedsore mattress, polyurethane foam, rehabilitation, functionalized textiles INTRODUCTION decubitus wounds which develop on the skin and tis- The continuous development of the mattresses mate- sue of the patient’s body after prolonged immobiliza- rials made, used to prevent or treat pressure ulcers, tion [1]. Senectute features a series of functional has made life expectancy to expand and to increase impairments affecting directly the organs’ functional elderly patient’s quality of life. Pressure ulcers are capacity, the body’s systems on account of a gradual industria textila˘ 283 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 and differential degradation process [2]. Given the process. The experiment was conducted on two increase in longevity, third age persons develop a groups, experimental and control, both consisting of number of conditions, mostly degenerative, which 10 subjects each, with hip joint fractures. All subjects cause favorable premises for fractures. High inci- had hip fractures, as well as co morbidities, such as: dence of fractures in the elderly population segment atherosclerosis with cerebral, coronary, peripheral is due to the bone metabolism changes which dimin- manifestations, chronic ischemic cardiomyopathy, ish bone toughness [3]. Diminished bone density essential hypertension, osteopenia/osteoporosis, (osteoporosis) also leads to diminished load, causing spinal and peripheral osteoarthritis with mono- or fractures [4–8]. Frequently encountered diseases in pluri-articular movements. this population segment, such as hemiparesis, Alzheimer’s dementia, Parkinson, osteomalacia, are Research criteria for both groups all susceptible to falls, thus favoring fractures. Case selection was carried out based upon the main Overlay of one of these conditions with a fracture diagnosis and patients’ consent (for Alzheimer’s causes the patient’s immobilization for a variable patients, consent was taken from the family) for inclu- length and subsequently limitation of activity results sion into one of the groups (experimental or control). in decrease of their quality of life and increase of mor- Differentiation between experimental and control bidity and mortality [9–10]. The elderly patient’s sample was made using a different prophylaxis pro- immobilization brings forward, apart from the clinical gramme: the control sample underwent usual kinetic signs relating to fracture and lung stasis, renal stasis, therapy, and the experimental sample underwent, edemas and tegumentary lesions in the peripheral apart from the kinetic programme, a prevention pro- regions, compression/decubitus ulcers [11–12]. Anti- gramme for general complications arising during the bedsores mattresses made of high elasticity and immobilization period and prophylaxis of tardy com- resilience foams allow ventilation of teguments, do plications. not favor sweating (maintain the teguments dry), drop Place and conditions for the experiment the pressure on teguments. All these characteristics represent the premises for using these mattresses Functional rehabilitation and patients’ prophylaxis both in order to avoid pressure ulcers, and to protect were conducted at their place of residence. an already present bedsore. Preparing personalized strategies for rehabilitation, primary and/or secondary EXPERIMENTAL PART prophylaxis of decubitus/compression ulcers The purpose of this study was to manage from clini- The operational objectives and means used were: cal and functional points of view the pathology identi- – Improve pain and prevent the inflammatory pro- fied (existent fractures and tares) in the subjects cess: antialgesic and anti-inflammatory medication; selected and to optimize the intervention strategies in – Sparing joints: joint rest, use of walking aids, the immobilization syndromes by identifying the com- crutches and walking sticks; binations between functional rehabilitation programs – Reduce swelling and stimulate venous return: anti- and modern methods/procedures for prophylaxis peripheral postures (“Bürger”-like gymnastics); and/or treatment of these subjects with a view to – Maintain normal range of movement and articular improve and/or preserve the health status and structures’ trophicity (carried out manually by the increase the quality of life. kinesiotherapist, then by family members); passive Study objectives: exercises; – To identify the clinical-functional and mental state – Re-educate active control of lower limb: neuro- of patients; muscular facilitation techniques; – To identify correlations between the clinical-func- – Maintain and increase strength and elasticity in tional and mental state of patients and the pres- various muscle groups: controlled active exercises; ence of compression ulcers; – Increase muscle strength and resilience in the – To identify the most effective operational (possibili- moderate protection phase of the injured lower ties) structures to reduce risks of developing com- limb: exercises involving resistance; pression ulcers; – Prevent physical deconditioning and reduce recov- – To set out tests and assessment tools to measure ery time: counter-lateral exercises; the quality and effectiveness of the means applied. – Oxygenate blood: breathing exercises; – To experiment and analyze the effectiveness of – Treat /protect existent bedsores: brushing; anti-bedsore mattresses and other related tech- – Prevent decubitus/compression ulcers, ventilate niques in relation to immobilization syndromes as a teguments, maintain the teguments dry (avoid sweat- therapeutic means. ing), drop pressure on the teguments: use of anti- – To show the results obtained and to statistically bedsore mattresses an pillows, wearing anti-bed- interpret them. sore boots (cushions) for heel protection, using cotton clothing and bed linens. Material and methods used in the research Early mobilization of patients with hip fractures, tared, Presentation of the groups of subjects which was achieved for the purpose of preventing: bron- underwent the intervention and rehabilitation chopneumonia due to lung stasis, compression industria textila˘ 284 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 ulcers, decubitus edemas caused by loss of vascular gives cotton fibers gracefulness and resilience, elas- reflexes in the peripheral regions, urinary infection ticity, finishing capacity and specific chemical proper- caused by renal stasis [13]. Given that some of the ties. Also, the use of bed pads was recommended patients had decubitus ulcers since the initial assess- especially for persons with urinary incontinence, ment was carried out, we thought it was essential to thanks to the higher protection level they provide for educate patients, and their family/next of kin, regard- sheets/blankets from the cellulose flakes layer and ing the correct treatments and their immediate appli- outer impermeable film (polyethylene), as well as due cation and prevention of other bedsores [14]. We must to the fact that the contact surface is soft, silky, deli- mention that the bedsores present were stage 2, cate to touch [16]. which are discontinuity solutions on the teguments, being superficial lesions affecting the epidermis and RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS dermis. If treated inadequately, they shall lead to The data obtained in the experimental group of open wounds. patients was summarized and analyzed statistically. In order to protect the bedsores already developed Upon analysis of subjects’ gender, we noticed the and to prevent others from occurring, in patients at control sample was made up of 6 female patients very high risk, we recommended the use of anti-bed- (standing for 60% of the total) and 4 male patients sore mattresses made of high density and elastic (standing for 40% of the total), and the experimental foams (HR35) and anti-bedsore pillows made of foam sample was made up of 7 female patients (standing type CMHR, with density applied of 38–40 Kg/mc, for 70% of the total) and 3 male patients (standing for with hardness of 200 Newton. The seating surface is 30% of the total), as can be noticed in the frequency made up of 3 parts: head, torso and leg. The mat- table shown below at table 1. tress’s manufacture allows the air to travel freely, Regarding the age of the control group, we found that thus avoiding dampness. Patients at high and aver- the average age was 77.2 years old with a minimum age risk of developing bedsores were recommended of 68 years old and maximum 92 years old, standard to use the dynamic anti-bedsore mattress with alter- deviation of 8.06 and the average age of the experi- nating pressure pump which inflates/deflates cyclical- mental group was 82 years old, with a minimum of ly the pneumatic chambers inserted inside the smart 70 years old and a maximum of 95 years old, stan- foam, type CMHR (polyurethane foam) and PVC dard deviation of 7.27. This data is shown below in the compartments, anti-bedsore air mattress made of table with descriptive statistical indicators at table 2. nylon/PVC (polymerized vinyl chloride manufactures In both groups, the type of fracture was as follows: as per the European standards, EN71), with cylindri- – In the control sample: greater trochanteric fracture cal compartments and alternating pressure compres- – 6 cases (standing for 60% of the total) and cervi- sor [9–10]. The mattresses were covered by func- cal hip fractures – 4 cases (40%); tionalized textile material, impermeable, hygienic and – In the experimental sample: greater trochanteric breathable, antifungal and antiallergenic. The materi- fracture – 7cases (standing for 70% of the total) al is flame-resistant and it has a long shelf life. and cervical hip – 3 cases (30%). Table 1 SUBJECTS’ GENDER – FREQUENCY Control sample Experimental sample Subjects gender Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) Male 4 40 3 30 Female 6 60 7 70 Total 10 100 10 100 Also, all patients were recommended to wear cotton Table 2 clothing and to use cotton bed linens, with thick fab- ric, seeing as, less dense fabrics become asperous PATIENTS’ AGE – STATISTICAL DESCRIPTIVE and form ridges or plies which increase the tegu- INDICATORS ments’ friction degree, thus favoring bedsores’ occur- Statistical Control Experimental rence. Thanks to its properties, such as, no allergenic indicator group group (100% natural), cotton allows good body ventilation, Mean 77.20 82.00 absorbs and easily removes body moisture, can bear Median 77.50 80.50 high temperatures without its quality or durability being Standard deviation 8.06 7.27 affected; hence it may be sterilized, which makes it the perfect choice for eliminating risks of infections’ Minimum 68.00 70.00 occurrence and spreading [15]. The cellulose content Maximum 92.00 95.00 industria textila˘ 285 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 3 TYPE OF FRACTURE – FREQUENCY Control group Experimental group Type of fracture Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) Cervical hip 4 40 3 30 Greater trochanter 6 60 7 70 Total 10 100 10 100 Table 3 shows the values of the researched variable. • Differences between experimental and control Related diseases present in the two research groups group. were the following, in order of their frequency: There are statistically significant differences between – In the control group: spinal and peripheral osteo - patients in the control group and those from the arthritis with pluri-articular movements (3 cases), experimental group regarding the hip joint range of cerebrovascular accident (3 cases), essential hyper- movement (p < 0.05), subjects in the experimental tension (4 cases), Alzheimer’s disease (2 cases), group registering better mobility. chronic ischemic cardio-myopathy (3 cases), uri- Trends in the test results are illustrated by the syn- nary incontinence (1 case), fracture of the distal thetic table of basic statistical indicators shown below radial epiphysis (1 case); in table 4. – In the experimental group: spinal and peripheral Concerning the presence and the degree of bed- osteoarthritis with pluri-articular movements (5 sores, the situation was as follows: cases), cerebrovascular accident (4 cases), essen- • Differences between tests inside the group. tial hypertension (5 cases), chronic ischemic car- – Initial: in the control group, 4 patients had bedsores diomyopathy (2 cases), and urinary incontinence (standing for 40% of the total), and 5 patients from (1 case). the experimental group (standing for 50% of the Hip mobility. In order to assess joint range of motion, total), all bedsores being stage 2; we conducted the initial, then final tests, calculating – Final: 5 patients in the control group still had bed- subsequently the difference between the two tests. sores (standing for 50% of the total), and in the They were carried out for each patient separately and experimental group, there were 3 patients (standing for all possible joint movements. for 30% of the total), all bedsores being stage 2. • Differences between tests inside the groups. • Differences between the experimental and the con- The descriptive statistical indicators table shows that trol group. mean differences values between the initial and final At the end of the rehabilitation program, there were tests were: statistically significant differences regarding the bed- – In the control group: flexion – 11.20; extension– sores’ presence, the highest progress being noticed 7.40; abduction – 4.80; adduction – 4.90; internal in the experimental group. rotation – 6.60; external rotation – 4.70; These results are exemplified in the frequency table – In the experimental group: flexion – 12.10; exten- shown further in table 5. sion – 7.80; abduction – 5.40; adduction – 6.30; The regions most frequently affected by bedsores internal rotation – 4.40; external rotation – 4.50. were: heel, sacral, gluteal, trochanteric and occipital. Table 4 MEAN VALUES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TESTS (INITIAL AND FINAL) RELATING TO JOINT RANGE OF MOTION – DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL INDICATORS Control group Experimental group Difference between tests Mean Standard Standarddeviation Minimum Maximum Mean deviation Minimum Maximum Flexion 11.20 5.82 3 21 12.10 5.40 4 22 Extension 7.40 4.11 2 15 7.80 4.10 3 17 Abduction 4.80 2.29 2 10 5.40 2.95 3 11 Adduction 4.90 2.55 2 8 6.30 1.82 3 8 Internal rotation 6.60 4.27 2 13 4.40 2.83 2 12 External rotation 4.70 1.88 2 7 4.50 2.27 2 8 industria textila˘ 286 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 5 PRESENCE OF DECUBITUS/COMPRESSION ULCERS – FREQUENCY Control group Experimental group Initial Final Initial Final Bedsores presence Absolute Relativefrequency Absolute Relative frequency Absolute Relative Absolute Relative frequency (%) frequency (%) frequency frequency (%) frequency frequency (%) Yes 4 40 5 50 5 50 3 30 No 6 60 5 50 5 50 7 70 Total 10 100 10 100 10 100 10 100 CONCLUSIONS the importance of patients/ their next of kin knowl- • The presence of complications due to decubitus edge in respect of preventing ulcers and/or treat- found in our study – bedsores, urinary infection, as ing/protecting those already formed; well as aggravation of some preexisting conditions • The regression registered regarding the bedsores such as pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases evolution or limitation of their expansion, identified represent immediate complications of hip frac- in the experimental group is an outcome obtained tures, which match the data in the published litera- following the use of anti-bedsores mattress made ture; of high density and elastic foam and absorbent bed • Taking account of the patients’ age and gender, we pads and textile materials with hygienic and pro- found out there is a significant increase in tective role; trochanteric fractures rate in the elderly, especial- • Passive mobilizations, passive-active and active ly in females; ones led to the significant improvement of func- • The pathology presented in our study leads to sig- tional parameters in the affected joints; nificant need of reeducation, concerning the possi- • Kinetic treatment related to a complex hygienic and bility to mobilize patients, in order to eliminate sanitary care decreases the risk of direct complica- decubitus/compression ulcers, fact which proves tions caused by patient bed immobilization. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Guy H., Downie F., McIntyre L., Peters J. Pressure ulcer prevention: making a difference across a health authority?, In: British journal of nursing, 2013, vol. 22, no.12, pp. S4–S13. [2] Bătrân D. Îmbătrânirea, un proces ireversibil / Ageing, an irreversible process, In: Revista de Administraţie Publică şi Politici Sociale, Anul I, nr. 3 / Iunie, 2010, pp. 40. [3] Colon-Emeric C.S. Postoperative management of hip fractures: interventions associated with improved outcomes, In: Bonekey reports, Dec. 2012. [4] Burcea C.C., Lupușoru M.O., Negreanu L., et al. Identification of osteoarthritis with multiple joint involvement in elderly institutionalized patients concomitant with psycho-kinesiotherapeutic intervention strategies – A Preliminary Study, In: Modern Medicine, 2015, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 351–354. [5] Boddaert J., Raux M., Khiami F., et al. Perioperative management of elderly patients with hip fracture, In:Anesthesiology, 2014, vol. 121, pp. 1336–1341. [6] Burcea C.C., Georgescu L., Armean P., et al. Rehabilitation of knee mobility using hydrokinesitherapy in patients with gonarthrosis, In: Medicina Sportivă – Journal of Romanian Sports Medicine Society, 2014, vol. 10, nr. 3, pp. 2406–2410. [7] Lupușoru M.O., Burcea C.C., Văcăroiu I.A., et al. The rehabilitation of elderly institutionalized patients with osteoarthritis (multiple joint involvement) using alternative methods associated to drug therapy, In: Modern Medicine, 2015, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 355–358. [8] Amin S., Achenbach S.J., Atkinson E.J., et al. Trends in fracture incidence: a population-based study over 20 years, In: J Bone Miner Res., 2014, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 581–589. [9] Carpintero P., Caeiro J.R., Carpintero R., et al. Complications of the hip fractures: a review, In: World J Orthop., Sep 2014, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 402–411. [10] Taylor N., Hogden E., Clay-Williams R., et al. Older, vulnerable patient view: a pilot study of the patient measure of safety (PMOS) with patients in Australia, In: BMJ Open, Jun 2016, vol. 6, no. 6. industria textila˘ 287 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 [11] Jaul E. Assessment and management of pressure ulcers in the elderly, In: Drugs Aging, 2010, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 311–325. [12] Delic J. The management of pressure ulcers, sixteenth annual European pressure ulcer advisory panel meeting, In: Austria Center, Vienna, 28th – 30th August 2013, pp. 83. [13] Singler K., Biber R., Wicklein S., et al. A plea for an early mobilization after hip fractures. The geriatric point of view, In: European Geriatric Medicine, 2013, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 40–42. [14] Agrawal K., Chauhan N. Pressure ulcers: back to the basics, In: Indian J Plast Surg., 2012, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 244–254. [15] Budimir A., Bischof Vukusic S., Grgac Flincec S. Study of antimicrobial properties of cotton medical textiles treated with citric acid and dried/cured by microwaves, In: Cellulose, 2012, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 289–296. [16] Bettez M., Tu L., Carlson K., et al. Update: Guidelines for adult urinary incontinence collaborative consensus document for the Canadian Urological Association, In: Can Urol Assoc J, 2012, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 354–363. Authors: CLAUDIA-CAMELIA BURCEA1 CONSTANTIN CIUCUREL2 COSMIN MEDAR1 MARIA GLENCORA COSTACHE3 LILIANA PĂDURE1 MARIUS IVAȘCU1 RAZVAN PETCA1 AIDA PETCA1 LUMINIŢA GEORGESCU2 CLAUDIA NICULESCU4 1 U.M.F. “Carol Davila” Bucharest / 37, Dionisie Lupu street, Bucharest, 020021, Romania 2 University of Piteşti / 1, Targul din Vale street, Pitești, Argeș, 110040, Romania 3 U.M.F. Craiova / 2, Petru Rareș street, Craiova, Dolj, 200349, Romania 4 The National Research & Development Institute for Textiles and Leather (INCDTP) 16, Lucretiu Patrascanu street, Bucharest, 030508, Romania Corresponding author: COSMIN MEDAR cosmin78@gmail.com industria textila˘ 288 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Evaluation of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of fabrics produced from yarns containing metal wire with a mobile based measurement system DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1372 E. KENAN ÇEVEN A. EMIR DİRİK AHMET KARAKÜÇÜK UĞUR YALÇIN REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Evaluarea eficacității ecranării electromagnetice a țesăturilor fabricate din fire care conțin fir metalic cu un sistem de măsurare mobil Această lucrare cuprinde o evaluare a efcienţei ecranării electromagnetice a țesăturilor care conțin fir din oțel inoxidabil, cu o nouă metodă mobilă. Firele de bătătură hibride cu acoperire încrucișată au fost realizate cu fire din poliester și oțel inoxidabil. Țesăturile conductoare au fost produse prin utilizarea firelor de bătătură hibride și a firelor de urzeală din poliester texturat. Țesăturile au fost testate în poziții verticale și orizontale pentru a determina eficienţa ecranării electromagnetice (EMSE). Toate măsurătorile EMSE au fost efectuate cu o metodă de testare mobilă. Această metodă se bazează pe principiul măsurării semnalelor GSM de către un software mobil și analizarea acestora prin metode statistice. Proprietatea EMSE a țesăturilor s-a dovedit a fi afectată de parametrii firelor hibride, cum ar fi parametrii determinaţi de numărul de straturi și de direcția acestora, după cum indică analizele statistice. Analizele bazate pe modelul Okumura-Hata au confirmat, de asemenea, rezultatele testelor. S-a ajuns la concluzia că noul sistem de măsurare mobil propus poate fi utilizat în mod corespunzător pentru a determina eficienţa ecranării electromagnetice (EMSE) a țesăturilor conductoare. Cuvinte-cheie: electromagnetic, ecranare, fire hibride, oțel inoxidabil, fir înfășurat Evaluation of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of fabrics produced from yarns containing metal wire with a mobile based measurement system This paper comprises an evaluation of electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of woven fabrics containing stainless steel wire with a new mobile based method. Cross covered hybrid weft yarns were produced with polyester and stainless steel metal wires. The conductive fabrics were produced by using the hybrid weft and texturized polyester warp yarns. Fabrics were tested in vertical and horizontal positions to determine the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMSE). All EMSE measurements were performed with a mobile based test method. This method is based on the principle of measuring GSM signals by mobile-based software and analyzing them by statistical methods. EMSE property of the woven fabrics was found to be affected by the hybrid yarn parameters like fabric parameters of ply number and ply direction, as indicated by statistical analyses. Analyses based on Okumura-Hata Model also verified test results.It was concluded that the proposed new mobile based measurement system can be used reliably to determine the EMSE of conductive fabrics. Keywords: electromagnetic, shielding, hybrid yarns, stainless steel, wrapped yarn INTRODUCTION health-related symptoms, such as depression, In recent decades, technological developments in the fatigue, loss of vision, and headaches. In addition, field of information and communications technology they may act as inhibitor to the immune system and (ICT) provide many uses and easiness communica- accelerate cell mutation which may increase forma- tion needs. However, they also increase electromag- tion of cancer cells. Reproduction ability of males netic radiation (EMR) in the environment, which is com- may also be affected negatively [3–5]. Thus, devel- oping materials that could be protective against EMR posed by both electric and magnetic components. are an area of interest. Recently, new materials, and The electric and magnetic fields can be transmitted methods to provide electromagnetic shielding are from one medium to another. Electromagnetic developed by researchers to reduce the harmful waves lie in a spectrum of extremely low (ELF, 0 Hz effect of the electronic devices on human health. ~ 300 Hz) to intermediate (IF, 300 Hz ~ 100 kHz), and Conductive textile materials are examples of these audio frequency (RF, 100 kHz ~ 300 GHz) and their developments. energy is proportional to their wave lengths [1–2]. The developed techniques are manufacturing con- Under operation, any electronic device such as com- ductive metal wires from metal sheets, production of puters, cell phones, household appliances, Wi-Fi sys- conductive fiber with different drawing methods, pro- tems and microwave ovens produce EMR. The duction of hybrid yarns from conductive filament and- broadusage of electronic devices has led to health staple fibers with spinning or wrapping together, coat- problems. A person who is being exposed to such ing fabrics with conductive paint, application of metal environment for a long period can show various powders, metal oxides/salts, conductive carbon, or industria textila˘ 289 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 polymers onto textiles. Fabrication of woven or knit- arrangement and it is difficult to overcomethis depen- ted structures with the use of conductive yarns is dency, which is a cause ofuncertainty in the results mainly intended to integrate grids or lattices into the [11]. fabrics construction. Improving flexibility, durability The purpose of this study is to present a new mobile and resistance to high-temperature and corrosionare based measurement method and evaluate EMSE of also merits which are targeted. Electrical conductivity woven fabrics made of composite yarns consisting property of metal wires is making them a good candi- stainless steel. The proposed method is designated date to achieve such properties. The frequently used especially for rapid comparative measurements of conductive metal wires are stainless steel, carbon, fabric samples. To show usability of this method, nickel, copper, gold, silver and titanium and their EMSE of fabric sample set was tested by using this alloys. method and obtained results were compared. Örtleket et al. constructed weft-knitted EM shielding The organization of the paper is as follows: In the fabrics using hybrid yarns with stainless steel wires. next chapter, we will elaborate on the experimental They find that the amount, orientation, andlength of design and the characteristics of fabrics, as well as the metal wires as well as the applied frequency its method of production and structure of the fabrics effected EMSE of fabrics. By integrating circuits to used in the experiment. Also in this chapter, the valid- fabric structures based on hybrid special yarns made ity of the approach has been analyzed theoretically from steel threads and wrapped by copper wires, and statistically. For theoretical analysis, we used a Grabowska et al. analyzed the attenuation of EM model (Okumura-Hata Model) from the communica- fields [6–7]. Bedeloglu, investigated the EM shielding tion and wave propagation literature; whereas for characteristics of knitted fabrics made with hybrid- statistical analysis, we used analysis of variance yarns having stainless wires, and illustrated that EM (ANOVA) and significance of differences (SNK) which shielding of the fabricis related with the wire content will be expanded in detail in the related subsections. and fabric structure [8]. Chen et al. fabricated a series In the section “results and discussion”, results of hybrid yarns with copper wire and polyamide fila- acquired from the experiment will be given and they ment as core and stainless steel wire as cover [9]. will be analyzed theoretically and statistically. Türksoy et al. compared shielding effectiveness results measured with the coaxial transmission line EXPERIMENTAL WORK method and the shielding chamber method. They Materials developed a non-linear model to simulate SE results of the coaxial transmission line method according to Characteristics of the weft and warp yarns, which shielding chamber method by using differential evo- were selected to producewoven fabric with electro- lution algorithm [10]. magnetic shielding characteristic, are as follows: The electromagnetic radiation shielding effectiveness 1. Weft yarn: Wrapping process was adopted to pro- measurement needs to use special devices, and duce composite yarns (figure 1) containing core yarn results are dramatically effectedby various electrical, of metal wire and covering yarns (figure 2). Polyester electromechanical, and electronic apparatus which yarns are cross covered over stainless steel metal emit electromagnetic energy in their normal opera- wires on a hollow spindle spinning machine (table 1). tion. There are several methods with different advan- 1.1. Core yarn: Stainless steel metal wire having tages are available for EMSE measurement: a diameter of 34 microns (70 denier), figure 3. 1. coaxial transmission line method; 1.2. Covering yarn: 75 denier textured FR (fire- 2. shielded room method; resistant) polyester (figure 3). 3. open field or free space method (without shielded- box or anechoic chamber); 4. shielded box (enclosure) method. The first method is a standardized method. It consists of a network analyzer and two coaxial adapters as sample holders. Signals are transmitted through coaxial cable line. The test samples get compressed between the sides of the holder. For comparing mea- surement results of test samplesmade of different shield materials, the shielded box (enclosure) method is frequently used. The method comprises a metal box having a sample port on the wall, and a receiver inside the box. From outside the box, a transmitter is used to inject signals through the ports. The intensity of signals received through the open port and a sam- ple fitted port is logged and analyzed to compute the EMSE for a range around 500 MHz. However, this does not cover higher frequencies such as GSM 1800. The shielded room method overcomesthis limitation, but it requires high numbers of sample size and the Fig. 1. Hollow spindle spinning machine results generally depend on the usedexperimental industria textila˘ 290 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 1 Composite yarn type Core yarn Cover yarn Linear density, Tenacity Elongation denier (cN/tex) (%) Cross covered one metal wire 75 denier texturedof 34 microns FR polyester 220 35.71 24.33 measurement device (Samsung Galaxy S3 Mini) to fit tightly. The cell-phone software interface is used to measure the signal strength between the cell-tower and the phone continuously. This allowed us to sam- ple the signal strength values between the phone and a cell-tower. We sampled the signal strength reported by the phone for each second and keep a log of required values for the EMSE measurement test. These val- ues include the strength of the signal in terms of dBm (decibel-milliwatt), the percentage of the signal strength as well as the connected cell-tower id for Fig. 2. Structure of cross covered each of the samples. The last kind of the logged composite yarn items is especially important for the reliability of such measurements, as the source of the signal, the cell tower which the cell-phones connect to for each instance, cannot be controlled by the examiner. The phones are hard-coded to find the best signal bear- ing cell-tower to minimize its energy consumption and switches to a better cell-tower if there is a high- er-powered cell-tower is available in its proximity. Indeed, during the measurement, the phone switched to different towers. Inclusion of signal mea- surements from different towers can lead to unreli- able measurement results. To mitigate this, we increased the duration of the sampling to 300 min- utes for each test, and then filter the strength mea- surements per a particular cell-tower id; which is placed in a known location. This allowed us to com- pute the distance between the experiment site and Fig. 3. Microscopic photos of cross covered the cell-tower, thus validate the signal strength read- composite yarns ings, which can be found in the Validation section. We also skip the first 90 samples (for duration of 90 seconds for each sample) in each measurement The numbers of the wrapping layers are single layer to avoid the durations where the experimenter manu- and double layer. The wrapped count was selected ally exchanges the fabricated pockets. as 12 turns/cm for both layers. Wrapped count is To analyze the effect of different directions of the defined as the number of turns of wrapped material in per unit length; the unit is turn/cm. steel wires on the measurement, the fabric was cut 2. Warp yarn: 75 denier f 72, texturized type polyester. into two pieces; wherein the first piece fabric the weft Afterwards, a Dornier rapier weaving machine is yarn is in parallel with the device’s short edge and the used on the fabric mentioned above. The type of second one, with weft yarn is in parallel to the device’s weave was selected as 5 Shaft Satin. The warp yarn long edge are labeled with letters, “A” and “B”, fiber was chosen identical with the cover yarn (to respectively. Ply directions are illustrated in figure 4. from composite yarn) fiber type to avoid variables. We began the experiment by putting the device “as it Density of warp direction was 60 ends/cm and weft is” on a wooden desk surface allowing for it to receive direction was 26 picks/cm. Structure was selected as the GSM signal in an ordinary setting, consisting woven fabric, they provide more stable conformation, ground truth (GT) readings. Then the first ply “B” is higher density, smoother surface and low shrinkage used to cover the device tightly (B); then a second ply than the knitted fabric. “A” has been fitted on top of ply “B”, consisting the Method vertical and horizontal layers touching each other(BA) and so forth (BAB and BABA in order). Thus, the EMSE Measurement: recorded signal strength levels are labeled as, “GT”, To measure the shielding effectives of textile materi- “B”, “BA”, “BAB”, “BABA” such that the order of the als, we have made small-enough pockets for the letters, from left to right, signifies the order of the industria textila˘ 291 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Turkey, typical cell tower transmitter power is around 15.56 dB for 6 W. Thus, the signal level (SL) is determined as 107.93 dB which is equal to –77.93 dBm from equation 5. Under the same conditions, measurement result with the system was approximately found as –77.62 dBm. These results show that the measurement and the theoretical values are in good agreement for GSM transmitter powers from 1 to 40 W, which validates our approach. We offer an alternative test to evaluate the shielding effectiveness of woven fabrics with SS Fig. 4. Ply directions of the fabrics used for EMSE measurement component. SE = 20 log (E1/E2) = 20 log (H1/H2) = 10 log (P1/P2) can be used for the evaluations, where the values of applied fabrics from inner side to the outer side. The power P1, the electrical component E1 and the mag- results of the measurement can be found in the next netic component H1 are measured without the shield, section. whilst the values P2, E2 and H2 are measured with Validation of measurement based on the shield in place. Okumura-Hata Model: Statistical Evaluation: The Okumura-Hata Model is the well-known method, To conduct statistical evaluation, SPSS 17.0 was which calculates link loss for mobile communication used. Two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) on systems. This model is developed by Hata in [12] completely randomized samples was used as a fixed based on measurements reported by Okumura et al. model to understand the statistical importance of fab- [13]. The range of frequency is from 150 to 1500 MHz ric wrapping direction and turn numbers of the woven for this model. In addition to, the distance from the fabrics for the EMSE. mobile phone to the base-station ranges from 1 to 20 The mean values were compared by Student- km and the height of the mobile antenna is from 1 to Newman-Keuls (SNK) tests. All test results were 10 m. Link loss equation can be reduced for frequen- assessed at a significance level of a £ 0.05. The cy as 900 MHz and the mobile antenna height of 1.5 treatment levels were marked in accordance with the m. For urban areas, it is given by [14]: mean values, and any levels marked by different let- L = 146.8 – 13.82 log h + ter (a, b, c) showed that they were significantly differ-loss 10 ent. + (44.9 – 6.55 log10 h) log10 R [dB] (1) Where R is the distance from the mobile phone to the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION base station (km), h – the height of the base-station The measurement results can be found in table 2 antenna ranges of from 30 to 200 m. with respect to their mean and standard deviations However, if GSM frequencies are around 1800 MHz, and box-plot figures. equation (1) is not valid for this case. Therefore, Box-plot figures show the distribution of measure- COST 231 Hata Model is developed for urban areas ment results. In these figures, horizontal lines from [15]. The model is used in the frequency range 1500 top to bottom show the maximum; then the third, sec- to 2000 MHz. Link loss can be given as: ond (median), first quartiles and the minimum value L = 157.3 – 13.82 log h + of the distribution. The signal strength is plotted in fig-loss 10 ure 5 in dBm units, whereas figure 6 shows the sig- + (44.9 – 6.55 log10 h) log10 R [dB] (2) nal strength in Percentage units. The percentage according to COST 231 Hata Model [14]. To analyze results bring no new information w.r.t. dBm plot in fig- the validity of our proposed system, we assume a ure 5, they are given solely for reference, as they GSM base-station antenna height such as 30 m and were used for ANOVA computation. the equation reduced to: Table 2 shows the signal strength measurements (starting from “GT” and “B” to “BABA”) where B and Lloss = 136.9 + 35.2 log10 R [dB] (3) A represents fabrics positioned to provide perpendic- We will consider equation 3 for the distance, R = ular-located weft directions, as shown in figure 4. = 0.416 km, the approximate air distance between Measurement values are given in terms of means the cell tower and the cell phone. Hence, link loss is and standard deviations of signal strength values calculated as: (dBm) and signal strength percentages (%). Lloss = 123.49 [dB] (4) Table 3 shows the signal strength reductions (from “B” to “BABA”) where B and A represents fabrics The signal level (SL) can be basically calculated as: positioned to provide perpendicular-located weft SL = TP – L (5) directions. Reduction values are given in terms ofloss means of signal strength values (dBm) and signal Here, Transmitter Power (TP) is equal to 20 log10 P strength percentages (%) w.r.t. to ground truth aver- (dB) and power ranges from 1 to 40 W, typically. In ages in each given unit. industria textila˘ 292 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 5. Signal strength distributions in terms Fig. 6. Signal strength distributions in terms of dBm reported by device interface of percentage reported by device interface Table 2 Signal strength Unit GT B BA BAB BABA Average –63.37 –75.94 –80.81 –83.71 –90.63 dBm Standard deviation 1.31 2.23 2.04 1.21 2.13 Average 88.16 65.63 57.04 51.96 39.39 % Standard deviation 2.37 3.94 3.47 1.98 3.68 Table 3 of reduction by 4.9 dBm putting a third layer in the same direction as the first one increased the reduc- Reduction from B BA BAB BABA tion by 2.9 dBm. Lastly, adding the fourth layerGround Readings increased the reduction by 6.92 dBm w.r.t. the prior [dBm] –12.58 –17.44 –20.34 –27.27 one. As it is expected, increasing the number of lay- [%] –22.53 –31.12 –36.21 –48.77 ers increased the reduction. However, the most reduction is achieved when plies perpendicular to each other (BA and BABA sets) are applied to the In table 3, the reduction values for each setting was device, which is expected since a mesh-like structure calculated by subtracting the average of the signal w.r.t. steel wire occurs in these settings. strength reading from the average of a set, such as “B”, from the average of Ground Truth (“Ground”) Statistical analysis of experimental results readings. The results show that there is a linear rela- The results of the analysis of variance test (ANOVA) tion w.r.t. the number of plies added to the device and for EMSE values are summarized in table 4. The P is consistent along the experiments. Adding only a values in table 4 indicated that there were statisti - single-directed ply caused 12.58 [dBm] decrease in cally significant (5% significance level) differences the signal strength; with addition of the second ply between the EMSE values for different wrapping (perpendicular to the first one) increased the amount numbers of woven fabrics. Table 4 Dependent Variable: EMSE Source Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig. Corrected model 1402.785a 3 467.595 43.870 .000 Intercept 18504.374 1 18504.374 1736.088 .000 Wrapping number 1402.785 3 467.595 43.870 .000 Error 85.269 8 10.659 Total 19992.428 12 Corrected total 1488.054 11 a R squared = .943 (Adjusted R squared = .921) industria textila˘ 293 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Table 5 CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to present a new Student-Newman-Keulsa,b mobile based measurement method and evaluate Wrapping Subset* electromagnetic radiation shielding effectiveness of number N 1 2 3 woven fabrics made of composite yarns consisting stainless steel. 1B 3 25.48 The mobile based method is designed for compara- 1BA 3 35.24 tive EMSE measurements of fabric samples. To ana- 1BAB 3 41.02 lyze usability of the proposed method the electro- 1BABA 3 55.34 magnetic shielding effectiveness of fabric sample set was tested with the proposed method and obtained Sig. 1.000 .062 1.000 results were compared. * The different subsets indicate that they are significantly different The effect of wrapping numbers of woven fabrics on from each other at a significance level of 5 %. EMSE values was found significant. Another finding about the study was, the measure- The SNK test results for EMSE values (dB) of the ment and the theoretical values are in good agree- sample fabrics are presented in table 5. ment for GSM transmitter powers from 1 to 40 W, In table 5, SNK results shows that, the different type which validates our approach. of wrapping numbers fabrics possessed statistically Lastly, it was proved that the presented new mobile different EMSE values. The minimum EMSE value based measurement method can be used safely for was 25.48 dB for the wrapping number 1B while the the evaluation of the electromagnetic radiation maximum EMSE value was 55.34 dB for the wrap- shielding effectiveness of textile fabrics. ping number 1BABA. There was statistical difference ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS between the EMSE values for wrapping number 1B We would like to express our appreciation to AsyaDokuma and 1BA and between the wrapping number 1BAB Textile Limited Co., Bursa, Turkey for their contributions to and 1BABA. Statistical significant difference was not the production of composite yarns and we wish to thank to observed between the EMSE values for wrapping the staff of Konyalılar Textile Limited Co., Bursa, Turkey for number 1BA and 1BABA. their support during weaving operations. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Cifra, M., Fields, J.Z., Farhadi, A. Electromagnetic cellular interactions, In: ProgBiophysMol Bio, 2011; 105, pp. 223–246. [2] Hardell, L., Sage, C. Biological effects from electromagnetic field exposure and public exposure standards, In: Biomed Pharmacother, 2008, 62, pp. 104–109. [3] Hocking, B., Westerman, R. Neurological effects of radiofrequency radiation, In: Occup Med (Lond) 2003, 53, pp. 123–127. [4] Zamanian, A., Hardiman, C. Electromagnetic radiation and human health: a review of sources and effects, In: High Frequency Electronics, Summit Technical Media, 2005, pp. 16–26. [5] Gandhi, O.P. Electromagnetic fields: human safety issues, In: Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering, 2002; 4(1), pp. 211–234. [6] Örtlek, H.G., Gunesoglu, C., Okyay, G., Türkoğlu, Y., Investigation of electromagnetic shielding and comfort properties of single jersey fabrics knitted from hybrid yarns containing metal wire, In:TekstilveKonfeksiyon, 2012, vol.22, pp. 90–101. [7] Grabowska, K.E., Marciniak, K., Ciesielska, W., Izabela L. The analysis of attenuation of electromagnetic field by woven structures based on hybrid fancy yarns, In: Textile Research Journal, 2011, 81 (15), pp. 1578–1593. [8] Bedeloğlu, A. Electrical, electromagnetic shielding, and some physical properties of hybrid yarn-based knitted fabrics, In: Journal of The Textile Institute, 2013, vol. 104, no. 11, pp. 1247–1257. [9] Chen, H.C., Lee, K.C., Lin, J.H. Electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding properties of co-weaving-knitting fabrics reinforced composites, In: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2004, vol. 35, pp. 1249–1256. [10] Türksoy, E. S., Saritas, Ö.,Üstüntag, S., Saraçoglu, Ö. G. Simulation of electromagnetic shielding test results based on differential evaluation algorithm, In: IndustriaTextila, 2015, 66(4), pp.184–191. [11] Šafářová, V., Tunák, M., Truhlář, M., Militký, J. A new method and apparatus for evaluating the electromagnetic shielding effectiveness of textiles, In: Textile Research Journal, 2016, 86(1), pp. 44–56. [12] Barclay, L. (ed.), Propagation of radio waves, 2nd edition (London: IEE), 2003. industria textila˘ 294 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 [13] Ogbulezie, J.C. et al., Propagation models for GSM 900 and 1800 MHz for Port Harcourt and Enugu, In: Nigeria, Network and Communication Technologies, 2013, vol. 2, no. 2. [14] Christopher Haslett, Essentials of radio wave propagation, Ofcom, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2008. [15] European Commission COST Action 231, Digital mobile radio towards future generation systems’, (Brussels: European Commission), 1999. Authors: ERHAN KENAN ÇEVEN1 AHMET KARAKÜÇÜK2 AHMET EMİR DİRİK3 UĞUR YALÇIN4 1 Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Textile Engineering Department Görükle Campus,16059-Nilüfer-Bursa-Turkey 2Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department Görükle Campus,16059-Nilüfer-Bursa-Turkey 3 Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Computer Engineering Department Görükle Campus,16059-Nilüfer-Bursa-Turkey 4 Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department Görükle Campus,16059-Nilüfer-Bursa-Turkey e-mail: rceven@uludag.edu.tr , akarakucuk@uludag.edu.tr, edirik@uludag.edu.tr, uyalcin@uludag.edu.tr Corresponding author: AHMET KARAKÜÇÜK akarakucuk@uludag.edu.tr industria textila˘ 295 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Alternative dressings used for treating major burns DOI: 10.35530/IT.068.04.1431 DANA VASILESCU VICTOR GRAMA SABINA IONITA ADRIAN PELINARU EMILIA VISILEANU ALEXANDRU-LAUTENŢIU CHIOTOROIU REZUMAT – ABSTRACT Pansamente moderne utilizate pentru tratamentul arsurilor majore Context: Pretutindeni, leziunile de arsură sunt una dintre cele mai importante cauze de morbiditate și mortalitate, cu costuri ridicate pentru sistemul sanitar. Arsurile cu profunzime parțială necesită pansamente care sunt foarte scumpe și care trebuie schimbate foarte des. Dacă aceste tipuri de arsuri nu sunt tratate adecvat, acestea se pot infecta, pot determina cicatrici vicioase și se pot aprofunda și deveni arsuri pe toată grosimea. Obiectiv: Revizuirea literaturii medicale în ceea ce privește utilizarea diferitelor pansamente pentru managementul arsurilor majore. Surse de date și selecția studiului: Articolele referitoare la utilizarea biomaterialelor au fost selectate din articole relevante publicate în perioada 1991–2017. Toate cercetările au folosit termeni precum: pansamente pentru arsuri, managementul arsurilor cu grosime parțială, pansamente moderne pentru arsuri. Au fost cercetate ulterior informații relevante din articole. Sinteză informații: Optsprezece studii au fost considerate relevante pentru această analiză. Acest articol analizează diferite pansamente utilizate pentru tratamentul leziunilor de arsură. Există numeroase tipuri de pansamente ce pot fi utilizate într-o unitate de arsuri, incluzând: Xeroform, pansamente biologice, pansamente impregnate cu argint, pansamente hidrocoloide, pansamente cu peliculă de poliuretan, pansamente cu hidrogel, pansamente de nylon acoperite cu silicon, substituenți biosintetici de piele și pansamente în cercetare. Concluzii: Studiile viitoare trebuie să evidenţieze tipurile noi de pansamente ce pot fi utilizate pentru a maximiza calitatea epitelizării, pentru a minimiza timpul necesar pentru a crea tegumente noi, pentru a permite scăderea formării de țesut fibros și pentru a minimiza rata complicațiilor, precum riscul de infecții, liza epiteliului nou format și alte afecțiuni ale tegumentului și a complicaţiilor generale. Este necesar a fi studiate toate aceste aspecte pentru a se realiza pansamentul cu caracteristici optime, ce va determina rezultate excelente. Alternative dressings used for treating major burns Context: Across the globe burn injuries are one of the most important cause of morbidity and mortality, with great costs for health care. Partial-thickness burns require dressings that are very expensive and that must be changed very often. If these types of burns are not treated adequate they can get infected, leave vicious scars and even deepen to become full-thickness burns. Objective: To review the medical literature regarding the use of different dressings in treated major burn wounds. Data sources and study selection: The articles regarding the use of dressings were selected from articles published between 1991 and 2017. All searches used the terms dressings for burn wounds, partial thickness burns management, modern burn dressings. Relevant information from the articles was further researched. Data synthesis: Eighteen studies were considered relevant for this review. This article reviews different dressings used for burn wounds. There are many types of dressings that can be used in a burn unit, including: Xeroform petrolatum gauze, biological dressings, silver-impregnated dressings, hydrocolloid dressings, polyurethane film dressings, hydrogel dressings, silicon coated nylon dressings, biosynthetic skin substitute dressings and newly researched dressings. Conclusions: Future studies must demonstrate further dressings that can be used to maximize the epitelisation quality, to minimize the time necessary for creating new skin, to permit to form less fibrous tissue and to minimize the complication rate like the infection risk, the lysis of the newly formed epithelium and other skin diseases and general complications. We have to research all these aspects in order to discover the ideal dressing for excellent results. INTRODUCTION few or none burn centers and very expensive treat- Across the globe burn injuries are one of the most ment options [1–2]. Partial-thickness burns can be important causes of morbidity and mortality, with divided in superficial and e papillary dermis deep. The superficial partial thickness burns affects the great costs for health care. Most of the burn injuries, papillary dermis, with moderate oedema and intact according to many demographic studies take place in blisters, with bright pink or red color and the deep low or middle income countries (90%) because of the partial-thickness burns affect the papillary and reticu- alternative methods of heat and of cooking. Another lar dermis with broken blisters, important oedema important fact is that many children suffer from burn and white color [7]. injuries that will give them long term disabilities, Partial-thickness burns require dressings that are especially in countries that don’t have adequate very expensive and that must be changed very often. resources for treatment of burns in an acute setting, If these types of burns are not treated adequate they industria textila˘ 296 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 can get infected, leave vicious scars and even deep- TYPES OF BURN DRESSINGS en to become full-thickness burns [1]. Xeroform petrolatum gauze There are needed efficient, cost effective and easily Xeroform petrolatum gauze is made of a mixture of available dressings for taking care of burn wounds. petroleum and bismuth tribromophenate which is Dressings have to accelerate wound healing, protect impregnated into fine mesh sterile gauze [1]. the wound from infection and lower the leakage from Petroleum lets the wound to retain moisture, creating the burn wound to minimize the fluids, electrolytes an occlusive dressing and bismuth tribromophenate and proteins lost for the burn wound [7]. There are is an antimicrobial agent [1]. In some studies this many types of dressings used now for these types of gauze is preferred to DuoDERM, Kaltostat, burns: Mepilex, Mepilex Ag, Xeroform petrolatum Biobrane, Aquacel, Mepilex and Jelonat because gauze. it is cheaper, stable, it can be stored at room temper- Classic dressings consist of paraffin gauze, and sil- ature and it facilitates rapid re-epithelialization [1–5]. ver sulfadiazine (SSD). Modern dressings consist of Arhana Chattopadhyay et al. studied an alternative hydrocolloid, hydrofibre, silicones, alginates and for Xeroform that is cheaper and can be easily pre- polyurethane [7]. The gold standard for partial-thick- pared. This is made by mixing Vaseline (Unilever, ness burns remains the SSD which dries the wound. Rotterdam, Netherlands) with 3% bismuth tribro- The advantage of using the modern dressings is that mophenate powder by weight (Dudley Corp., they maintain a wet environment. They can protect Lakewood, N.J.) The colloid suspension that resulted the wound form the pathogenic bacteria [7]. was spread onto Kerlix gauze (Covidien, Dublin, and The goal of using dressings for burn wounds is to Republic of Ireland). The dressing macroscopically prevent infection, limit pain, and decrease metabolic resembles Xeroform concerning color and consisten- demand [8]. We can use with good results biological cy. This dressing is cheaper that using Xeroform and dressings which lower the complication rate, promote can be easily done by hand [1]. This type of dressing healing and minimize the risk for vicious scars [8].It is made by hand is has at least the same bacteriostatic important to provide healthcare professionals with to E. coli growth compared with Xeroform and it has information about the pathophysiology of burn wound the same cytotoxicity level as Xeroform. This type of progression and to choose the best types of burn dressing can be made by hand from raw materials at wound dressings and to know the indications for dif- 34% of the cost of Kendall Xeroform, which is the ferent types of dressings in different burn depths least expensive brand [1].It is important to do further research regarding the relating to the latest studies [10]. antimicrobial activity for this type of dressing for The plastic surgeon must understand the pathophys- Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Klebsiella, and iology that underlies the wound-healing process to Staphylococcus aureus [6]. make informed decisions about the best patient man- The effect on time to wound closure and burn heal is agement [11–13]. Our article provides an overview of the same for all the dressing types studied. optimal conditions for healing and the assessment of As a conclusion to this study, an effective, safe and burn wounds dressings. Types of burn wound dress- inexpensive bismuth-petrolatum dressing can be pro- ings and their model of action are discussed to pro- duced by hand [1]. This dressing is antimicrobial, can vide guidance for use in different clinical settings. protect wounds during re-epithelialization and is bio- The remaining question is related with the most effec- compatible [1]. tive dressing to use for this type of burn injuries, regarding the epithelisation time, minimizing of com- Biological dressings. Bovine collagen sheets plications, cost of the product, the availability of it and Collagen is a unique protein with consists of a triple the long time results. helix, each helix has over 1000 amino acids. There are many types of collagen in the human body, of MAIN PART OF THE REVIEW which the main type in skin is type I collagen. For The management of partial thickness burns includes dressings we can use bovine collagen, which chemi- cally is very similar to the human collagen. Bovine general and local treatment, well defined for the collagen sheets are comprised mostly of type I and III depth of the wound and for the surface area burned. collagens. The granulation of the tissue covered with The types of burn dressing used for partial thickness bovine collagen developed at a normal rate and the burns include: cellular events are then same at the events taking • Xeroform petrolatum gauze; place in normal wounds which are healed using clas- • Biological dressings; sic methods [8]. • Silver-impregnated dressings; Collagen sheets are used especially in first- and sec- • Hydrocolloid dressings; ond-degree burns. The costs and pain related to • Polyurethane film dressings; changing the dressing can be avoided using only a • Hydrogel dressings; single collagen dressing, especially in children [8]. • Silicon coated nylon dressings; The biologic characteristics of collagen are: noninflam- • Biosynthetic skin substitute dressings; matory, nontoxic, noncarcinogenetic, has minimal • Newly researched dressings. degradation and low antigenicity, collagen facilitates industria textila˘ 297 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 migration of fibroblasts and microvascular cells, and Silver-impregnated dressings promotes the synthesis of neodermal collagen matri- These types of dressings are preferred over silver ces, that concludes in minimization of forming of sulfadiazine cream in management of pediatric scarring tissue [8]. burns. They provide a wet and sterile environment, Collagen bovine sheets are elastic, have good tear which don’t require painful dressing change. There strength, are soft, supple, impermeable to bacterial are many types of silver-impregnated dressings, like migration, modulate fluid flux from the wound and silver sodium carboxymethyl cellulose dressing have no clinical significant immunological or histolog- (Aquacel Ag, ConvaTec, Greensboro, NC), nano- ical responses and are not rejected by the human crystalline silver-coated polyethylene dressing body. They have a perfect biocompatibility. They lack (Acticoat, Smith & Nephew, London, UK), Contreet the threat of infectious diseases as bovine collagen is (Hydrocolloid with silver), Avance (foam with silver) obtained from countries free of bovine spongiform [9, 12]. encephalopathy. This bovine collagen sheets poses Both types of dressings have the same infection and long shelf life under normal storage conditions [8]. escalation care rate, which is very rare, Aquacel Ag The action of metalloproteinases is inhibited by the requires less dressing change than Acticoat. Both use of bovinecollagen dressing Collagen represents dressings are effective, they allow epithelisation and a template for the infiltration of fibroblasts, macro - prevent infection. Aquacel may be superior to phages, and lymphocytes and attracts monocytes to Acticoat because requires fewer dressing changes the wound site, increasing the neovascularisation by and direct manipulation of the wound, which can increasing the formation of capillaries. As healing cause discomfort to the patient and require addition- progresses, collagen is produced and deposited by al interventions and enhances pain for the patient [9]. the fibroblasts, this newly formed collagen replaces Acticoat deliversnano-crystalline silver and Aquacel Ag consists of a fibre dressing with silver [12]. the collagen portion of the collagen sheet [8]. Atrauman Ag (figure 1) is a new silver-containing Singh et al. demonstrate that the bovine collagen ointment dressing that has antimicrobial properties sheets hastens the wound, lower the need for a skin with low cellular toxicity. The cytotoxicity for HaCaT graft and reduces scar contracture. Biobrane dress- keratinocytes was 10%, regarding the slough score, ing can lower pain related to the changing of the the proportion was reduced from 59.2 to 35.8%, the dressing, decrease total healing time, the hospitaliza- formation of granulation tissue increased from 27 to tion stay and improves the compliance of the 40% and epithelialisation raised from 12.1 to 24%. patients. The use of bioengineered skin substitutes Atrauman Ag has superior antimicrobial activity com- improves the outcome of partial-thickness facial burns pared to cellular toxicity and the low silver ion release compared to the standard open topical ointment tech- rate prevents interference with natural wound-healing nique [8]. mechanisms [11]. The result of using bovine collagen sheets is very The chitosan-based silver dressing has good good regarding early recovery and less pain, with no results in new studies on children regarding the lack side effects of collagen application [8]. of shrinkage of the dressing when is moist form the Fig. 1. New silver-containing ointment dressing industria textila˘ 298 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 Fig. 2. Antimicrobial dressing Fig. 3. DuoDerm-hydrocolloid dressings wound exudate, the lack of infection of the wound site Polyurethane film dressings and normal time of epithelisation because it offers an The most popular is represented by the polyurethane optimal environment for moist wound management, film dressings that consist of OpSite (Smith & and did not demonstrate the shrinkage or disintegra- Nephew) or Tegaderm (3M Company). Those dress- tion like when using the hydrofibre dressings. The ings are permeable to water vapour oxygen and car- chitosan-based silver dressing is deserving of further bon dioxide but not to liquid water or bacteria, trans- study as an alternative to traditional burn dressings parent, adhesive-coated sheets that can be applied [15]. directly to the wound. Those types of dressings can A new, next-generation antimicrobial dressing (NGAD; be used for lightly exuding wounds [12]. AQUACEL Ag+ EXTRA dressing – figure 2) is wide- ly studied in many countries in managing wound exu- Hydrogel dressings date, infection and biofilm, and facilitating progres- Hydrogel dressings can be used in amorphous form: sion toward healing. The studies have demonstrated IntraSite (Smith & Nephew), figure 4, and Solugel or important improvements in wound health, time of in sheet hydrogels where the gel is presented with a healing and size, and in some cases, complete heal- fixed three dimensional macro structure that include ing [16]. Aqua clear and Nu-gel (Johnson & Johnson), figure Electrospun mats consisting of polycaprolactone 5 [12]. (PCL) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) incorporated Those dressings are high water content gels contain- with silver sulfadiazine (SSD) ing insoluble polymers, which have an amount ofcan be used as absorptive properties that concludes the use of those antimicrobial wound dressings with the capability of dressings for moderate exudative wounds, compared cell seeding. This dressing is coated with fibronectin with Polyurethane film dressings which aren’t used to enhance the biocompatibility of the scaffold incor- for exudative wounds [12]. porated with SSD particles. Those mats have a Those polymers include modified carboxymethylcel- hydrophilic surface that can adhere to the wound lulose, hemicellulose, agar, glycerol and pectin. Their bed. The electrospun mats that have SSD particles fluid donating properties assist wound debridement have the property to increase the fiber diameter and and also in maintaining a moist wound environment have also hydrophilic properties, the SSD particles [12]. weaken the mechanical characteristics of the electro- spun mats. The best concentration of SSD is demon- Silicon coated nylon dressings strated to consist of 5 weight % SSD/PVA as it has a Silicon coated nylon dressings like Mepitel desirable fiber quality for the mats, also those electro - (Mölnlycke) consist of a flexible polyamide net coated spun mats have good antimicrobial properties and great cell proliferation on the surface [18]. Hydrocolloid dressings There are many types of hydrocolloid dress- ings like Comfeel (Coloplast) and DuoDerm (ConvaTec) – figure 3. These types of burn dressings contain gelatin, pectin and sodium carboxymethylcellulose in an adhesive poly- mer matrix. When the inner layer of those dressings come in contact with exudates form a gel which many authors demonstrate that facilitates autolytic debridement of the wound Fig. 4. IntraSite-Hydrogel dressings Fig. 5. Nu-gel-Sheet [12]. hydrogels industria textila˘ 299 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 gas and fluid exchange which pro- vides both protection from bacterial influx and mechanical coverage [12]. Newly researched dressings As we all know dermal fibrosis has limited effective therapeutic modalities and the physicians need to create an anti-scarring dressing. Malihe-Sadat Poormasjedi-Meibod et al developed a new antiscarring dressing and investigated its potential as a slow- releasing vehicle for kynurenic acid (KynA), an antifibrotic agent which Fig. 6. Safeac-Silicn coated Fig. 7. Stratatsorb-Silicon coated was incorporated into polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) nanofibers, with increasing concentration of polyethy- with soft silicone that don’t have any biological com- lene glycol (PEG). In vivo application of KynA-incor- ponent. Their mesh structure allows drainage of exu- porated films significantly inhibited collagen date from the burned surface which is non-adherent (23.89 ± 4.79 vs. 6.99 ± 0.41, collagen-I/β-actin mRNA and can be changed with no side effects [12]. Some expression, control vs. treated) and fibronectin other types of silicon coated: Safetac (figure 6) and expression (7.18 ± 1.09 vs. 2.31 ± 0.05, fibronectin/ Stratatsorb (figure 7). β-actin mRNA expression, control vs. treated) and enhanced the production of an ECM-degrading Biosynthetic skin substitute dressings enzyme (2.03 ± 0.88 vs. 11.88 ± 1.16 MMP-1/β-actin Biosynthetic skin substitute dressings consist of mRNA expression, control vs. treated). The fabricat- Biobrane (Dow Hickam/Bertek Pharmaceuticals), and ed KynA-incorporated films can be exploited as antifi- Trans Cyte (Advanced Tissue Sciences). Those dress- brotic wound dressings (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, ings have been developed to mimic the function of Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 104A: 2334–2344, skin by recreating the epidermis or dermis, or both 2016) [17]. Those new dressings require clinical trials (figure 8). Those manufactured epidermal substitutes and many other studies to demonstrate the efficacy allow for re-epithelization to occur while permitting a of the products. Fig. 8. Biosynthetic skin industria textila˘ 300 2017, vol. 68, nr. 4 CONCLUSIONS There are many types of dressings that can be used There are many studies and many protocols involv- in a burn unit, including: Xeroform petrolatum gauze, ing the burn wounds treatment, including special biological dressings, silver-impregnated dressings, dressings used for enhancing epithelisation and for hydrocolloid dressings, polyurethane film dressings, reducing the infection risk and surgical management. hydrogel dressings, silicon coated nylon dressings, The steps that must be followed in a burn wound are biosynthetic skin substitute dressings and newly determined regarding the degree and the surface of researched dressings. the burn area. In the international literature many studies demon- For first degree burns the treatment is very easy. strate the superiority of expensive dressings and They can be treated without any dressings. In chil- other complementary treatments, but we have to dren they can be treated using low-adherent dressing understand that in every country there are ethical, (e.g. Mepitel™ + Melolin™) because children have a legal and financial problems that must be taken into tendency to blister or scratch [14]. consideration in order to manage a burn patient. Partial thickness burns (second degree) can be treat- There are many studies from developing countries ed using different dressings concluded in our study. that explain that some simple dressings like Xeroform For small, superficial partial thickness burn wounds, petrolatum gauze and its hospital made analogs have a low adherent dressing (e.g. BactigrasTM + very good results that can be compared with those of Melolin™ or Mepilex-AgTM). For more extensive or expensive dressings. Future studies must demon- deeper partial thickness burn wound we can use a strate further dressings that can be used to maximize low-adherent silver dressing (e.g. Acticoat™ or the epitelisation quality, to minimize the time neces- Acticoat 7™) [14]. sary for creating new skin, to permit to form less It is very important to understand that every type of fibrous tissue and to minimize the complication rate burn wound must be treated accordingly to the inter- like the infection risk, the lysis of the newly formed national protocols but we have to remember that epithelium and other skin diseases and general com- every patient can have specific medical problems plications. We have to research all these aspects in that have to be taken into account in order to accom- order to discover the ideal dressing for excellent plish the best results possible. results. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Arhana Chattopadhyay, Kathleen Chang, Khoa Nguyen, Michael G. 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