JMR 16, 2023  315-342

Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from 
Bulgaria

Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik 
Temsiller

 Vania POPOVA*  

(Received 01 October 2022, accepted after revision 26 August 2023)

Abstract
The article traces the cosmologic structure and its separate components, reflected on the Late Antique mosaic 
pavements from the ancient provinces of present-day Bulgaria. Distinguished are three basic historical periods 
of development. The observations reveal that these lands were receiving ready cosmogonic structure’s schemes 
after the act of cosmogony from the big artistic centers of Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and North Africa. For 
several reasons, the cosmologic structure and the components of the Late Antique mosaic pavements from 
Bulgaria are not full, but limited and adapted, with many missing figural representations in the mosaic 
pavements and the tomb wall paintings, differently to the Western and the Eastern Mediterranean. This is 
considered a kind of proto-iconoclasm, due to the influence of heresies and the concrete historical, religious 
and artistic development. The joyful picture of the Christian Universe changes and disintegrates after the 
Justinianic period, and the previous Order and Harmony, including the place of each sphere and cosmologic 
element, is already not fixed, but in free mixture with other figural and symbolic images. The old cosmologic 
picture comes to its logical end and is replaced by a new one after the beginning of 7th century.  

Keywords: Cosmological elements, Late antique church and house mosaic pavements, missing figural 
representations, heresies.  

Öz
Bu makale, günümüz Bulgaristan’ının antik vilayetlerinde bulunan Geç Antik Çağ mozaik döşemelerine 
yansıyan kozmolojik yapının ve onun ayrı bileşenlerinin izini sürmektedir. Üç temel tarihsel gelişim dönemi 
ayırt edilmiştir. Gözlemler, bu toprakların kozmogoni eyleminden sonra İtalya, Yunanistan, Küçük Asya ve 
Kuzey Afrika’daki büyük sanat merkezlerinden hazır kozmogonik yapı şemalarını aldığını ortaya koymaktadır. 
Çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı, Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ mozaik döşemelerinin kozmolojik yapısı ve 
bileşenleri, Batı ve Doğu Akdeniz’den farklı olarak, mozaik döşemelerde ve mezar duvar resimlerinde birçok 
eksik figürlü temsil ile tam olmayıp, sınırlı ve uyarlanmıştır. Bu durum, dine aykırılıkların ve somut tarihsel, 
dini ve sanatsal gelişimin etkisiyle bir tür proto-ikonoklazm olarak kabul edilir. Hıristiyan Evreninin neşeli 
resmi Iustinianus döneminden sonra değişir, parçalanır ve her kürenin ve kozmolojik unsurun yeri de dahil 
olmak üzere önceki Düzen ve Uyum zaten sabit değildir, ancak diğer figüratif ve sembolik imgelerle serbestçe 
karışır. Eski kozmolojik resim mantıksal olarak sona erer ve 7. yüzyılın başından sonra yerini yeni bir tanesine 
bırakır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kozmolojik unsurlar, Geç antik kilise ve ev mozaik döşemeleri, eksik figürel temsiller, dine 
aykırı düşünceler.

DOI: 10.26658/jmr.1376838 (Research Article / Araştırma Makalesi) 

*   Vania Popova, 1359 Lyulin block 405, Sofia, Bulgaria. E-mail: popova.vania@gmail.com      



316    Vania Popova

The problem of the cosmologic picture reflected in the pavement mosaics of 
the Late Antique provinces in the Central and Eastern Balkans, is tied with the 
figural art. There exists a peculiarity in the Late Antique pavement mosaics from 
the provinces Dacia Mediterranea, Moesia II, Scythia, Thracia, Rhodope and 
Macedonia I concerning the figural art. With several exceptions, it is totally 
missing during part of the Constantinian period and especially in the earlier 
Theodosian times (Popova 2019). The figural images appeared again in the 
Late Theodosian period, predominantly as separate Christian symbols (Popova 
2022b:188-205, and the references), increasing in number and widening the 
repertoire of the figural representations up to the middle of 6th century. Except 
that, one can never observe God or connected with him figural representations 
not only on the mosaic pavements, but also on the wall paintings of the numerous 
Early Christian/ Early Byzantine tombs from Bulgaria, with two exceptions - 
the  tomb wall paintings from Philippopolis with two wonders of Christ, and 
God’s personification as Eirene on the pavement mosaic of the metropolitan’s 
residence in the same city.1 This situation is quite different from the catacombs 
in Italy and most of the Early Christian sepulchral art elsewhere, where during 
the first half - the middle of 4th century can be observed some narratives and 
separate scenes and personalities from the Old and the New Testament (Pépin 
1964; Grabar 1988; Wolska-Conus 1990; Fiocci Nicolai et al. 1998; Jenott - 
Gribetz 2013). In the opinion of the researchers, the exceptions representing 
figural art in the LA provinces of  Bulgaria are due to the presence of itinerant 
mosaicists from Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, who were creating quite different 
and richer in figural art monuments from the local masters.2 However, differently 
from the floor mosaics and the tomb wall paintings, the image of God, the Holy 
Virgin, the apostles, saints, martyrs and the scenes from the New Testament etc. 
have been depicted, although rarely, on the wall paintings of some basilicas, 
baptisteries, martyriums and churches on the territory of Bulgaria.3

In the pavement mosaics and the sepulchral wall paintings God is not represented 
not only in the action of cosmogony itself, creating the visible and the invisible 
world, but generally. It is obvious that the mosaicists of pavements and the 
painters of tombs have worked with and have represented only the results of 
the cosmogony, with the almost entire cosmologic structure or its separate 
components. This situation is quite different from the most significant theological 
and artistic centers of Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and North Africa, where the 
cosmogony and cosmology is an often subject in the Early Christian literature, 
philosophy and theology, appearing, although not so frequently in comparison 
to the written word, in the figural art (Kitzinger 1954; Pépin 1964; Grabar 1988; 
Maguire 1990; Jenott - Gribetz 2013). It seems that in the LA provinces of 
Bulgaria there existed a kind of proto-iconoclastic trend for a long period. The 
reasons for this proto-iconoclasm deserve a special study, nevertheless I will 

1 The tomb with the wonders of Christ was discovered in 2012, but unfortunately it is still not published, 
although at the moment it is the only one of the kind in Bulgaria. On Eirene see Popova 2021, with 
references on the previous publications.

2 The decoration of the church buildings themselves in Bulgaria from LA is found only in fragments. 
In the case of the Red church in Perustitsa, the initial paintings are even covered with a later layer. 
These circumstances do not allow to restore the whole scheme and to evaluate its peculiarities. Most 
probably, some of the church decoration schemes reveal the same peculiarities as in the pavement 
mosaics and tomb wall paintings. However, it is supposed that the usual orthodox schemes are present 
in the church decoration.

3 See the representations from the basilica from Byala; in the church from the village of Khan Krum; in 
the basilica from the village of Voden; from the basilica 1 in Kabile; from the martyrium of Perustistsa 
(Pillinger et al. 1999: taf. 9 abb. 45 taf. 57 abb. 43-44, and on the front cover; taf. 58 abb. 60; taf. 27-
28, 61-63; Yotov - Minchev 2018: pl. 3).                       



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   317

stop the attention to them below, in the attempt to describe the complexity of 
the problem. 

Three different periods can be determined in the development of the LA mosaics 
of Bulgaria concerning only the presence of a rich cosmologic picture or its 
separate scenes and elements. The first period begins in the second decade of 
the 4th century, immediately after the issuing of the first ever Edict of Tolerance 
of Galerius to Christianity in 311, and the Edict of Milan of Constantine I and 
Licinius I in 313. This first period lasts to the ascending of Theodosius I on the 
throne in 379. The second period concerns mainly the period of the Theodosian 
dynasty from 379 up to the middle of 5th century. The last third period begins 
after the middle of 5th century, and contains the second half of 5th century, all 
the 6th century and the very beginning of 7th one, when the Barbarian invasions 
ended with the creation of new states on the Balkans.  

The Cosmologic Picture During I Period
The difficulty of showing the cosmologic picture on a pavement mosaic consists 
in the fact that it cannot demonstrate the vertical structure with all spheres in a 
three-dimensional way (Fig. 1), but only in the form of a two-dimensional floor 
decoration. Nevertheless, the different spheres of the Christian Universe have 
been separated and denoted on the floor mosaics in a definite order.  Each panel 
or border with figural art had a strict place and has been depicted in a definite 
sequence, answering to the vertical and horizontal structures, to the place of the 
different terrestrial, water, and heavenly spheres with its creatures and symbols; 
to the four horizontal world directions and to the left and the right one; finally, to 
the new ‘omphalos’ of the Christian Cosmos with God and his entourage.

To the I period can be related the mosaics of a domus erected in the central 
part of Augusta Traiana-Beroe, the present-day Stara Zagora (Figs. 2-3) (Popova 
2022a: 335-6 figs.1-2). The owner of the domus has ordered a relatively complete 
picture of the Universe on the floor of his tablinium (Pillinger et al. 2016: taf. 79 
abb. 221-222; taf. 78 abb. 219; taf. 77 abb. 215-216; taf. 78 abb. 218). But while 
earlier the river Oceanus was encircling the Terra/the Earth, now оn the opposite, 

Figure 1 
The structure of the Early Christian universe 
described by Cosma Indicopleustes. 
According to Wolska-Conus 1990.    



318   Vania Popova

the Water in the form of octagonal piscine is encircled by panels with terrestrial 
representations. The piscine was a real and constantly functioning element 
of the urban houses, bringing cool and freshness in the very hot in summer 
Philippopolis and Augusta Traiana-Beroe (Popova 2016: 158-160). At the same 
time, the edges of the piscine covered with mosaic guilloche and the close to 
them representations of fish and a cancer were covered with drops, slashes and 
a slight layer of water from the fountain spout, creating an illusionistic ’marine’ 
for the two mosaic nereids and the numerous water creatures (Figs. 4a-b). Being 
a monument of the transitional period from paganism to Christianity, the mosaic 

pavements of the domus demonstrate features of both of them. The nereids, 
earlier riding on the backs of mythological sea-monsters, now are swimming 
freely among usual but also impressively shown fish. The previous illusionistic 
treatment by delicate and diverse colour nuances in opus vermiculatum of the 

Figure 3
Reconstruction of the whole composition 
of the domus in Stara Zagora. Authors: St. 
Goshev, with additions (in the right part of 
‘The Fountain of Life’) of V. Popova and A. 
Dimitrov.

Figure 2
The mosaic pavements of a Late Antique 
domus on Stoletov bul. In Augusta Traiana-
Beroe, now Stara Zagora. The state now, in 
situ. Foto: Archive of the Regional Historical 
Museum in Stara Zagora. 

Figure 4a
The part with the left nereid from the mosaics 
of the domus on Stoletov bul. In Stara Zagora, 
in situ. According to Pillinger et al. 2016.

Figure 4b 
The part with the right nereid from the 
mosaics of the domus on Stoletov bul. In 
Stara Zagora, in situ. Photo: A. Dimitrov.



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   319

nude bodies are now dropped out and replaced by a ruder and schematic design 
in tesselatum technique, omitting important details, changing the proportions 
(especially in the hands and legs and its fingers), and reaching to obvious 
mistakes in rending the forms. The volume is shown only by thick repeating 
lines in one only colour, or by almost monochrome streaks and spots. Even the 
hair-dress is represented by rude and straight long locks.

But while the bodies of the nereids are clumsy and schematic, the water creatures 
reveal, separately or together, diverse poses and configurations in well done 
compositions, and a very picturesque colour treatment (Figs. 4a- 5). The mosaic 

inscriptions are welcoming the guests in the usual Roman manner. But unusual 
for these lands are the two panels with fruits and exotic eastern vegetables 
cucurbits (Figs. 6a-b). These are xenia for the owners and their guests, and 
together with the pairs of animals (Figs. 7- 8a-b) on the outer border symbolize 
the four seasons of the year. In them the dog is chasing wild animals, from which 
are preserved the wild goat, the hare, the wild boar and the doe, shown against 
scattered roses. 

Figure 5
The fish, the cancer and the welcoming 
mosaic inscription around the piscine from 
the mosaics of the domus on Stoletov bul. In 
Stara Zagora, in situ. According to Pillinger 
et al. 2016. 

Figures 6a-b
two panels with xenia from the mosaics of 
the domus on Stoletov bul. In Stara Zagora, 
in situ. Foto A. Dimitrov.



320    Vania Popova

Most of the outer borders with geometric-ornamental schemes (Fig. 5a) contain 
usual pagan geometric and ornamental fillings, but unexpectedly also two rare 
for that period representations of a chalice with the Euharistic wine and a cross 
patée (Popova 2021) placed among the small-scaled images, and denoting 
openly the Christian belonging of this owner. The main scene, ‘The Fountain of 
Life’ (Fig. 9) reveals the notion of the highest celestial sphere of the Paradise, 
and symbolizes the Christian god and the joyful life of the believers there 
(Popova 2016: with references). It seems that in the empty now panel below 
the pseudo-emblem (Figs. 1-2, 9), the text of psalm 42,1 or another supposedly 
suitable mosaic inscription has been laid, but later lost. This is maybe not only 
the earliest known in official Christianity cross of the kind, but also the earliest 

Figure 7
The western border with pairs of animals 
from the mosaics of the domus on Stoletov 
bul. In Stara Zagora, in situ. According to 
Pillinger et al. 2016. 
Figures 8a-b
The doe from the eastern border and the wild 
boar from the western border of the mosaics 
of the domus on Stoletov bul. In Stara Zagora, 
in situ. According to Pillinger et al. 2016. 

Figure 9
The central scene with ‘The Fountain of Life’ 
from the mosaics of the domus on Stoletov 
bul. In Stara Zagora, in situ. Photo: A. 
Dimitrov.



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   321

official monumental scene of vons vitae, with two deer flanking a vessel with 
fresh water for the thirsty soul, referring visually to psalm 42,1, and symbolizing 
the Christian faith, the victory over death, and the joyful eternal life in the 
Paradise of the righteous man. The crater (Popova 2016: 158-160, 168-169) with 
two flanking deer and two water birds is framed from both ends by branchy vine 
scrolls with green leafs and heavy grapes, an illusion also to Christ, his sacrifice 
in order to save the mankind, and the new official Early Christian religion. The 
scene as design and proportions is obviously heavy and not elegant. But the 
representations are remarkable with its rich palette and colour treatment, and are 
among the best examples of the immediate post-Tetrarchic style of Constantine 
I and Licinius I, preceding the first manifestation of the classicizing trend of the 
former after 324.

The Ocean is shown too in two other marine scenes from the same I period 
(Pillinger et al. 1999: no 38: 48-50 taf. 24-25, 60). The first one belongs to a 
villa suburbana near Serdica, in the present-day quarter Filipovtsi of Sofia (see 
also Попова 2010). It depicts a harbour, part of the fortress with its masons, 
and its main gate, probably of the lower part under der marine pharos. But 
its upper part, namely the pharos itself, is not shown. The marine landscape 
represents two ships and many fish distributed around the piscine. It is very near 
to the Western samples of mosaics both in the marine scene and the geometric-
ornamental panels. The second superb mosaic from Philippopolis (Pillinger et 
al. 2016: no. 42, 220-227 taf. 160 abb. 415 taf. 161-163) is a splendid figural 
pseudo-emblem with very tiny tesserae of vermiculatum technique, surrounded 
by a splendid geometric-ornamental border in the tesselatum technique. Unusual 
for these lands is the colour background revealing the Mediterrainean Sea with 
its extremely rich fauna, flora and the mythological erotes, shown either in boats 
or riding on a dolphin. The pseudo-emblem is not typical for the local workshops 
neither in its iconography, nor in its style and very fine technique. It is made by 
an itinerant master coming from the Eastern Mediterranean, Cyprus or North 
Africa, where one can meet marinas with the colour background and very similar 
to a real emblem marine scene in opus vermiculatum.

A very interesting tomb (Figs. 10-11a-b) with purely geometric mosaic from 
the beginning of 4th century has been found in the environs of Diocletianopolis/

Hissarya (Pillinger et al. 1999: 48-51). The non-figural essence of the mosaic 
allows to determine only the not-well-preserved wall paintings as forming the 
cosmologic structure, consisting of imitation of marble revetment in the lower 
part (the terrestrial sphere), and scattered flower motives in the upper one, as if 
the Elysium garden. In the middle or the second half of the same century, the 
tomb has been additionally supplied by a brick kline covered with illusionistic 

Figure 10
The general view of the tomb with a 
mosaic, kline and wall paintings from 
Diocletianopolis, now Hissarya, in situ. 
Archive of the Archaelogical Museum of the 
town.

Figures 11a-b
Two fragments from the wall paintings of the 
tomb with mosaic from Hissarya. Archive of 
the Institute of History of Art in Sofia.



322   Vania Popova

painted imitation of textile, and also additionally decorated by a painted cross 
(?) in a wreath on the vault. Because of the presence of the mosaic and the kline, 
this tomb is also foreign for the lands of Roman and Late Antique Thracia. Such 
monuments can be met in Greece (for instance Corinth), the islands and Asia 
Minor (Anemurium etc.). The comparison with the furniture and decoration of a 
house with a floor mosaic is only illusive, because the ritual of the last sepulchral 
feast in the tomb unites the terrestrial sphere of life with the invisible sphere of 
death and Afterlife. This is a specific case containing also cosmologic elements 
at the moment of transition of the soul from the lower to a higher sphere in 
accordance to the adequate beliefs of paganism on the place of the Elysium, 
or of Christianity in the Paradise. Both beliefs are reflected alternatively in the 
tomb decoration and its cosmologic structure, demonstrating the change from 
paganism to official Christianity in one and the same monument belonging to 
the 30-es of 4th century.

In the mentioned cases of rich and unknown for these lands cosmologic picture, 
it has been made on the order of very learned clients and by talented not local 
masters, coming from famous artistic centers with long traditions in representing 
either a big synthetic picture of the Universe, or its also lavishly depicted separate 
cosmologic components. Most often in the LA monuments from Bulgaria the 
personifications of the seasons can be met in the anthropomorphic form of a 
women dressed in a classical tunica. Such is the woman from the rich residence 
or villa urbana (rather elite residence) of a magistrate in Marcianopolis from 
the period of Constantius II according to the found coin in the mortar under the 
mosaic (Pillinger et al. 2016: no 8: 54-64 taf. 24 abb. 59; taf. 25 abb. 62-63). 
The second season from a house in Serdica II (Pillinger et al. 2016: no. 68: 
318-310) is the personification of summer as woman with three wheats partly 
preserved over her right side (Fig. 12). It is a pity that the central representation 
and the other three seasons have not been preserved in both monuments from 
Marcianopolis and Serdica II, in order to reconstruct the whole pseudo-emblema 
with its central representation. Another iconography of the Seasons lavishly 
symbolized by fruits and vegetables, with couples of birds around, is shown in 
the receiving room of the residence near the agora of Philippopolis (Pillinger et 
al. 2016: taf. 114 abb. 307).

It is under question the interpretation of the scene from the residence in Ratiaria: 
Orpheus with the animals, or the Golden age, or the Paradise (?), because many 
of the representations are not preserved (Pillinger et al. 2016: no. 20: 100-
105). In all cases, the picture of the highest sphere in this mosaic was among 
the richest ones because all the animals have been represented, including the 
elephant. But it seems that except the Ratiaria nosaic and the one from the domus 
in Augusta Traiana, generally in the LA residences and urban houses the picture 
of the earthy sphere is adapted and limited, and only few repeating elements of 
the seasons as anthropomorphic busts or fruits are used in the mosaics, while 
many other figural components are omitted, differently, for instance, from the 
cosmologic mosaics of the LA provinces of Mediterranean, for instance the 
seasons in Centelles (Abura 2015).   

In the Christian cult buildings of I period in 4th century can be observed a 
specialization of the topics like in the supposed martyrium under St. Sophia in 
Serdica (Динчев 2014; Pillinger et al. 2016: no 65: 300-315). The apse mosaic 
(Fig. 13) dated in Late Constantinian - Early Valentinian period shows the 
symbolic garden of the Paradise, in the center with two doves on a vase, a variant 
copying the famous drinking doves of Sosos/Sosus of Pergamon. Two other birds 

Figure 12
The mosaic with the personification of 
Summer from Serdica II, now Sofia, kept in 
the funds of the Regional Historical Museum 
of Sofia. Archive of the Institute of History 
of Art in Sofia.



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   323

below are tearing violently the branches and its leafs growing out of two baskets. 
This is a kind of transformation of the Fountain of Life, using not the usual 
cantharos with the flanking deer and birds, but the Hellenistic prototype with the 
doves. Similar motifs are used also on one of the vaults of Santa Constanza in 
Rome. Nevertheless, the main meaning is the same ‘quenching one’s thirst’ as in 
psalm 42,1 of vons vitae. The two cypress trees in the Serdician martyrium are 
borrowed from the sepulchral art as symbol of the martyr’s death, and the two 
tendrils of vine, very thick and rude, enclose the central scene with the Fountain 
of Life, as general picture of the Paradise with the everlasting life and pleasure. 
In this Christian cult mosaic, the cosmologic theme of death, Anastasis, Paradise 
and everlasting life is developed by the help of the martyrdom on the base of 
Hellenistic prototype, developed further and transformed in the typical Early 
Christian way. 

The Cosmologic Picture During II Period      
The second period during the rule of the Theodosian dynasty has three phases 
concerning the cosmologic picture. During the earliest first one (the 80es of 4th c.), 
the official basilicas (like the Episcopal basilica of Marcianopolis and a recently 
found modest mosaic from Philippopolis) have no figural representations, 
except scarce plant motifs and rosettes (Popova 2019; Топалилов 2022; 
BozhinovaTopalilov 2022).The general scheme and its fillings are geometric-
ornamental in the same phase in the new Theodosian ‘purustic’ style, and the 
palette is very bright and warm. In the second phase (the 90es) have appeared 
separate symbols as vases with vine trellises like in basilica No 2 in Garmen 
(Pillinger et al. 2016: no. 74: 337-346), and birds in front of branches with leafs, 
as in the cathedral basilica (No 4) of Parthicopolis (Op. cit., No 78: 354-356). 

Figure 13
The apse mosaic of the martyrium under St. 
Sophia in Serdica, now Sofia, in National 
Archaeological museum in Sofia. According 
to Pillinger et al. 2016.



324    Vania Popova

For the first time the Hell is denoted by a snake, eaten by a water bird like in 
the same basilica (Popova 2022a: fig. 14a), and the Paradise, shown behind the 
railing, with its blossoming flowers at the background and three symbolic vases 
of the Euharist and vons vitae at the front, as in the Episcopal basilica in Odessos 
(Pillinger et al. 2016: taf. 10 abb. 19). The palette changes from very bright and 
warm up to very fine and delicate, more balanced or even pastel, as in Odessos 
and the metropolitan basilica of Philippopolis (Popova 2022b: 195-196). At 
the end of the Theodosian period during the third phase, the representations 
connected with the Euharist, the other Sacraments and the rituals like the 
peacock with other birds, vases and flowers in the nartex in front of the entrance 
of the same basilica in Philippopolis (Topalilov 2020а; Popova 2022b: 206 fig. 
19b), are preferred instead of the usual earthy figural cosmologic elements.4

The previous strict order, subordination of the cosmologic spheres and the steady 
fixation of its place begins its gradual disintegration at the end of the Theodosian 
period. This is demonstrated by the mosaics of basilica No 7 (the basilica of 
Bitus) from Pautalia in Dacia Mediterranea (Fig. 14). Instead of being around a 
pool/piscine/fountain, as usually in Thracia, in Pautalia, the representations of 
four fish (Fig. 15) are placed in the south aisle (Pillinger et al. 2016: taf. 351 abb. 

863; taf. 355 abb. 874). The small-sized and nor representative fish configuration 
submits to a center, and denotes the four horizontal directions of the world, very 
similarly to a mosaic from Sardes, but without the round ocean (Fig. 16). The 
Pautalian fish are torn out not only from the centrally positioned ocean, but 
also of the adequate place in the whole picture of the Universe. They are placed 
in the south aisle’s composition of geometric-ornamental character, mingled 
among a lot of Early Christian symbols, geometric forms and near to the mosaic 
donator’s inscription of Bitus. This means that at the end of the Theodosian 
period the previous rules of fixed place of each sphere of the Universe already 
did not exist in the mosaic pavements. Such observation on the mixture of the 
representatives of the different spheres in the later periods has been made long 
ago by G. Cvetković-Tomašević (1978).

One more important event was connected with the cosmologic mosaics from 
the period of Theodosius I and his heirs. From the end of the century, the 
synagogues have been closed, even some transformed to Christian churches 
(Kolarik 2014), and this happened too to the synagogue in Philippopolis. Its 
mosaic representations show the main Jewish liturgical vessels and objects 

4 This is the symbol of the battle between the Darkness and the Light, also with other connotations, 
descending from very ancient times, and transformed in Christianity in the combat between God and 
devil. See Wittkover 1939.

Figure 14
The general schemes of the mosaics in the 
basilica No 7 (the basilica of Bitus) from 
Pautalia, now Kyustendil. According to 
Pillinger et al. 2016.

Figure 16
A mosaic from a LA house in Sardes. Photo: 
Google.

Figure 15
The fish from the south aisle in basilica No 7 
(the basilica of Bitus) from Pautalia, in situ. 
Photo: V. Popova.



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   325

(Pillinger et al. 2016: 239-248 taf. 174-178). The monument demonstrates 
two earlier mosaic donators’ inscriptions referring to 3rd century, when the 
synagogue has been built and the first mosaic laid; a representation of a golden 
menorah in a marvelous classicizing style from the middle - the second half 
of 4th century; and geometric-ornamental compositions from the first half of 
5th century, when the synagogue stopped its functioning and was transformed 
to Early Christian basilica.5 The cosmologic components in it, similarly to the 
Christian martyrium in Serdica, are focusing only on the sacred sphere of God 
through the liturgical vessels and symbols in the most essential from liturgical 
aspect places of architecture.     

In the official residences and the private houses of II Theodosian period, one 
can meet again the case of itinerant mosaicists from Asia Minor and Syria, with 
unusually richer cosmologic picture of the Universe. Many facts prove that the 
residence mosaics under the modern post-office in Stara Zagora (Fig. 17) are made 

5 Its recent dating in the period of 5th and even 6th century (Kolarik 2014: 122) seems not plausible 
both because of the classicizing and not manieristic essence of the style of the menorah mosaic, the 
anti-Jewish politics of Theodosius I and the dates of the edicts of his heirs against the Jews. That’s 
why namely the period of Theodosius I and Arcadius mark the end of the synagogue’s existence and 
its transformation into a Christian church, and the earlier making of its menorah mosaic.

Figure 17
General plan and the mosaic schemes of 
the receiving hall and the biconch of the 
residence under the Post-office in Stara 
Zagora. According to Pillinger et al. 2016, 
with additions (the reconstruction of the 
biconch mosaics of V. Popova).   



326    Vania Popova

by a Syrian workshop. The residence was supposedly belonging first to the praetor 
of the city, but at the end of 5th - 6th century maybe to the bishop.6 Its mosaics from 
I building period have been laid at the end of 4th - beginning of 5th century. The 
main hall, most probably with stibadium in the apse, has monumental rectangular 
room, with the typical U-like cross composition (Fig. 18) (Pillinger et al. 2016: 

138-147 taf. 88-100). The composition is very well deliberated and every place 
is filled with adequate scheme, but in a balanced way, far from vacuum horrori, 
in dependence of the geometric form and frame, the basic classical principles of 
non-absolute symmetry, with rich variations of each scheme, motif and colour. 
The four world directions and the four seasons are represented in it in the form of 
different kinds of garlands wrapped by diverse ribbons, flowers and fruits rising 
from the central Blătterkelch (Figs. 19a-b). Well preserved is the red background 

6 There exist different interpretations on the owner and the building periods. See Pillinger et al. 2016: 
no 31: 138-140, 146-147; Topalilov 2022.

Figures 19a-b
The U-compositions with the allegories 
of the seasons from the receiving hall of 
the residence under the Post-office in Stara 
Zagora, in situ. According to Pillinger et al. 
2016.

Figure 18
Drawing with the general mosaic schemes 
of the receiving hall in the residence under 
the Post-office in Stara Zagora. According to 
Pillinger et al. 2016. 



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   327

of all U-forms, but only the symbol of Autumn can be seen better in the vine 
trellis with red grapes. At the corners are shown three cantharoses with ‘The 
Fountain of Life’ and one with the Euharistic wine, all the vessels (Fig. 20) with 
a central pinia cone instead of the spout of the fountain (strobilion), and with two 
flanking birds of different kinds (including the rare depicted in this iconography 
parrots), perched on the vine branches with grapes. The representation in the 
very center is not preserved. The outer border from one side is unusual colonnade 
consisting of alternating red and black marble columns.7 

The pagan bodies with their flesh from the mosaic with vons vitae in Augusta 
Traiana have been omitted, together with the representations of animals. We 
can compare also the mosaic from the aula of the residence to another mosaic, 
coming too from Sardes, and now in the Manisa museum (Fig. 21). In it the 
anthropomorphic illusionistic code is also lacking, but the animals and birds 
still stand for each sphere: heaven and ether are symbolized by the eagle in the 
center; Water by the sea mythological creatures; Earth, the four seasons and the 
four horizontal directions by the pairs of animals and the four birds at the corners. 
Still no Christian notions are directly shown in this mosaic. The next step in the 
development of the cosmologic picture has been done in the residence under the 
Post-office in Stara Zagora where the figural representations are limited further 
and the Christian vision of the Universe is demonstrated by the symbols. Here 
all the representations are not illusionistic sculptural, but flat, decorative and 
very picturesque. The terrestrial sphere is represented by the expensive flatly 
treated colonnade, by the four horizontal directions of the U-forms, and by the 
plant-and-birds’ symbolic codes of each season, in synthesis with the Paradise, 
symbolized by vons vitae, the Euharistic motif of the wine in a vessel and the 
Christian vine trellis with grapes. It is obvious that the flat geometric-ornamental 
decoration prevails, and for the first time in such a cosmologic composition, 
dominate the main symbols of the Christian faith, the Christian vision of the 
Universe’s structure and the Christian symbols, also as apothropeions for the 
well-being of the magistrate, his family and the city.

7 The colonnade may have really existed carved of the expensive red porphyry/or red granite, and of the 
black so-called Lucul’s marble descending from the island of Melos. See Sharankov 2011: 98.

Figure 20
A cantharos with the wine branch and grapes 
from the receiving hall of the residence 
under the Post-office in Stara Zagora, in situ. 
According to Pillinger et al. 2016.

Figure 21
A mosaic from Sardes with the cosmologic 
structures, now in the Manisa museum. 
Photo: Google.



328    Vania Popova

Nevertheless, the change in omitting the anthropomorphic and animal code is 
not resulting in loss of representativeness and artistry, because of the extremely 
lavish composition, the richness of schemes and the numerous variants of 
motifs’ design and its colours. This is one of the best LA mosaics not only among 
the ones with cross U-scheme, but generally. The Early Christian symbolic 
language is used as the main media in the cosmologic picture. On the second 
place is the decorativeness of a refined, almost palatial type, the classical colour 
combinations, and the colour background in the U-forms. То it contributes as 
well the pavement mosaics of the biconch room,8 made of expensive white 
and colour stone plates in opus sectile (Figs. 17, 22-23). The scheme and the 

palette of the preserved mosaic in one of the horseshoe parts of the biclinium is 
very similar to a mosaic in opus sectile from Apameia (see Balty 1981). Most 
probably they both are made by one and the same workshop from Apameia or 
close to it mosaic atelier, having in mind the iconographic and technic closeness, 
but also one epitaph from Philippopolis.9 On the third place should be mentioned 
the architectonic allusions not only in the colonnade of the façade, but also in 
the obvious similarity to a centric cupola building installed on four solid corner 
supports, and with four arches between each pair. In this way, the general mosaic 
scheme on the floor is thought to be adequate to the real or imagined architectural 
structure, and by that to the vertical cosmologic structures of the Christian 
Universe, in gradation upward. In this monument we meet a perfect synthesis of 
architecture, Early Christian cosmologic vision and mosaic decoration.

8 It seems that because of the presence of the stybadium in the aula, the usual triclinium placed aside 
is deprived of one of its conch and turned to biclinium. It may serve the women from the praetor’s 
family, while all the men were lying on the stibadium. 

9 The constant artistic, economic and political ties with the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt are well 
witnessed in the historical and epigraphic sources from Bulgaria and by the direct import of artistic 
production and manufacture (for instance marble and glass items). Some high magistrates descending 
from Asia Minor bear the name of Asiaticus etc., or point directly their origin from the cities in 
Asia Minor (Popova 2016: 174). In Philippopolis and the closely situated Augusta Traiana-Beroe 
and Diocletianopolis and this area of Thracia are found mosaics, architectonic elements, imported 
from Asia Minor marble architectonic elements, portraits and sarcophagi, imported glass vessels, 
medallions and manufactured glass, and many epigraphic evidences for the constant trade with the 
cities of Asia Minor and Syria and the presence of sculptors, artisans etc. from these remoted lands. 
Concretely, In the epitaph of Maxim from Philippopolis is said that he was a poet and citizen of 
Apameia, who has won many poetic competitions, including Kendrisia Pythia in Philippopolis, by 
that winning ‘the love of Thrace and of the whole world”. Probably after that the poet has chosen to 
live namely in Philippopolis to the end of his life. See Sharankov 2007: 143 fig. 7. 

Figure 22
The opus sectile mosaic in the square room 
of the biconch next to the receiving hall of 
the residence under the Post-office in Stara 
Zagora, in situ. According to Pillinger et al. 
2016.

Figure 23
The mosaic in opus sectile from Apameia. 
According to Balty 1981. 



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   329

The very close similarities in all aspects among the two mosaics from Augusta 
Traiana-Beroe (the one with ‘The Fountain of life” and the earlier mosaics of 
the residence) with the two pointed mosaics from Sardes and the opus sectile 
mosaic from Apameia prove the foreign Asia Minor - Near East origin of the 
mosaicists. Except the examined to the moment mosaics made by this Eastern 
workshops, one can add as well the mosaic found in situ during building of the 
Modern Historical Museum of Stara Zagora (Fig. 24a), which is the first sample 
in Bulgaria of such compound scheme of 9 interlacing differently coloured 
circles, typical mainly for some mosaics from Israel (Fig. 24b). Most probably 
the appearance of the tomb with a mosaic floor and the concrete type of kline 
in Diocletianopol in Thracia is also an imported idea of a sepulchral monument 
with cosmologic components from Greece or Asia Minor.10 

Two monuments with wall paintings from the Theodosian period should be 
compared with the pavement mosaics, because of its fuller cosmologic picture 
and the lack of the representation of God and scenes from the Old and the New 
Testament. The first one is the tomb with the archangels from Serdica (Pillinger 
et al. 1999: no 51: 69-72), and the second one is the tomb from Ossenovo (Op. 
cit., no 4: 13-16). The Serdician monument (Fig. 25) is the only tomb to represent 

10 Tombs under an artificial hill (tumulos), with dromos and similar plan of the chamber are well known 
in the Thracian culture since the Classical period onward. But in Hissarya it is rather copying a Greek 
example from LA.           

Figure 24a
A part of the mosaic found during the building 
of the Regional Historical Museum of Stara 
Zagora. Now covered in situ. According to 
Pillinger et al. 2016. 

Figure 24b
The mosaic composition of the Samaritan 
Museum in Jerusalem. Photo: Google.

Figure 25
Drawing with the general schemes of the wall 
paintings in the tomb with the archangels 
from Serdica, in situ. According to Pillinger 
et al. 1999.



330    Vania Popova

anthropomorphic forms, namely the Archangels on the ceiling, with the cross in 
the center, standing in the different opinions either instead of God, or as his 
Second Coming, or as a cosmic sign, or as apothropeic sign, or symbolizing 
even several meanings together. This scheme surely copies a painted or mosaic 
monument, which either has not survived, or still is not found. In all cases, the 
tomb with the archangels is an exception for the Central Balkans, and created 
under the influence of a theologian concept of a big artistic center. Much fuller 
from the studied aspect is the Ossenovo tomb near Varna (Fig. 26a-b), where 

a supposed Gothic military chieftain has been buried (Popova, in print, in 
the edition ‘The Goths in the Balkans’). In it can be found one of the richest 
cosmologic picture representing the sun and moon, several skies, the vertical 
and horizontal distribution of the different spheres and elements, with rich 
figural compositions and representations. The battle between the Devil and God 
represented by personifications of two animals, is among the rare images in LA 
provinces of the Central and Eastern Balkans. It should be pointed out that some 
researchers determine that Cosma Indicopleustes displays namely a Nestorian 
picture of the Universe. In spite of a similar cosmologic picture, it is a problem 
to identify the structure of the tomb paintings in Ossenovo with the Nestorians. 
It seems more plausible to connect it with the Goths-Arians. Similar structures 
on other tomb paintings and the naïve childish way of treatment and design can 
be met on the in Crimea Peninsula (Fig. 27a; see also Zavadskaya 2013), and 
on the Low Danubian Limes (Fig. 27b), in the area from Sirmium to Naissos/
Naissus, obviously also relating to the Goths-Arians, living there (see Rakocija 
2015).

Figure 26a
Drawing with the general schemes of the 
wall paintings from the tomb in Ossenovo. 
According to Pillinger et al. 1999.

Figure 26b
Detail from the wall paintings from the tomb 
of Ossenovo, in situ. According to Pillinger 
et al. 1999.

Figure 27a
A Late Antique tomb painting from Crimea 
with the sun and the moon at the front. 
According to Zavadskaya 2013. 

Figure 27b
A Late Antique tomb painting from Naisos 
with the heavenly sphere. According to 
Rakocija 2015.



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   331

The data on any Gnostic, Nestorian and other heresies in the Central and Eastern 
Balkans, spread by the Syrians, Armenians and Egyptians settlers, artisans, 
bishops, monks, hermits etc. is still poorly known, or still only supposed, without 
sure evidences. Better are witnessed the Arians and the struggle between the 
Monophysite emperors and the Orthodox bishops in the studied areas.11 Namely 
Philippopolis and Augusta Traiana are known as the strongholds of Arianism 
in 4th century, but namely in these two cities are found the richest cosmologic 
mosaic samples, different from the local mosaics. We have enough grounds to 
suspect that some of the specifics in the representations created by the local 
masters have been caused namely by the latter two heresies, while the better and 
richer monuments have been created by itinerant mosaicists from Italy, Greece, 
the Greek islands, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and among the Jewish diaspora 
in the Balkans, because of the administrative affiliations and the constant 
economic, trade, cultic, religious and cultural connections. The perfect net of 
roads in the Roman and the Early Byzantine empires also helped for the mobility 
of the craftsmen and the iconographic, stylistic and technical exchange among 
the even remote provinces.

The Cosmologic Picture During III Period 
The last third and very long period from the second half of 5th up to the beginning 
of 7th c. reveals several phenomena concerning the cosmologic scenes and 
elements, and valid throughout the whole period.
The first feature is the further specialization of the apse, the chancel and the 
baptisterium mosaic decoration. i.e. the most important for the Euharistic liturgy 
and the other rituals architectural elements.  Up to the moment, the apse of the 
basilica of Bitus is the only one from the third period with figural repertoire, while 
the rest of monuments are either not excavated, or not preserved, or covered by 
opus sectile aniconical decoration. The later apse mosaic in the basilica of Bitus 
in Pautalia (Fig. 14), laid in the Justinianic period, represents the twelve lambs-
apostles in the Paradise, among the blossoming flowers of the garden (Pillinger 
et al. 2016: taf. 359 abb. 887-888; taf. 360; taf. 889-890).12 The apse mosaic of 
the basilica of Bitus reflects the strong influence of the wall and conch mosaics 
of Italy on the pavement mosaics in the Central and West Balkans revealing that 
most of its local churches had no possibility of ordering wall mosaics, but only 
pavements. The apse is the most holy part of each Early Christian building in 
horizontal direction, compаred to the structure of the Christian Universe, so the 
placing of the picture of the Paradise there (instead on the walls or the vault) was 
logical. This fact plus the authority of Constantine the Great who introduced 
officially the Crismon (the Chi-Ro sign), also explain why the important symbols 
and cosmologic elements have been placed namely in the apse (Popova 2022a: 
345-346 figs. 21-22), and on many pavements in front or in the chancel itself, 
in spite of the prohibition to put sacred images on the floor, and to concentrate 
the mosaic decoration namely in the most important in liturgical aspect places. 
The second feature is that the cross, some other Christian symbols and the psalm 
citing stand instead of the image of God, his sphere and the most holy ones in 
the vertical direction. Three images are arranged in very formal compositions 
in the tomb paintings, with the cross in the middle and two symmetrical birds 

11 Topalilov 2020b; Topalilov 2022, with references on the literature and the sources, especially on the 
Arians on p. 281; Топалилов 2019.

12 The important central elements between both left and right group of the lambs have not been preserved, 
and the possible reconstructions offered are several: a cross, a Crismon, a central Lamb-Christ on the 
omphalos, the four rivers of the Paradise etc.



332    Vania Popova

or animals aside. The former richness of the previous two periods gives place 
to schematic-symbolic signs, except in the period of the Justinianic Revival. 
Especially schematic became the symbols at the last quarter of 6th century, 
consisting only of crosses in the tomb paintings. The Christian symbols 
replaced the previous earthy cosmogonic ones (animals, birds, fish) and pagan 
mythological representations. The cross and the other Christian symbols have 
already become universalia, capable of expressing many cosmologic and 
theological meanings, and by that at the end of LA the figural cosmology comes 
to its new essence, almost mediaeval, not ancient.
The third common feature during the third period is that the western part of the 
aisle is associated with the sphere of the Earth and the Ocean (Maguire 1990), 
so the created by God terrestrial and water creatures are depicted namely here. 
In most of the pavements, the birds are mixed with the branches, or fish and 
liturgical vessels (Figs. 28-29).13 All representations are of one and the same 
size, in spite of the fact that the liturgical vessels and symbols are of basic 

importance, and previously in the first and second studied period are shown 
more monumental. The classical example is the composition with many birds in 
different poses, either single, in pairs, in the nest, in cages etc. in the Metropolitan 
basilica of Philippopolis (Fig. 30) and many other basilicas from the last third 

13 This general idea has been worked out in details and schemes by G. Cvetković-Tomašević 1978, and 
later the place of the terrestrial and oceanic spheres described brilliantly by H. Maguire 1990.

Figure 28
Panel with birds in basilica No 4 of 
Parthicopolis, now Sandanski, in situ. Photo: 
S. Petrova.

Figure 29
Part of the panel with birds and fish from the 
basilica of bishop Ioannes in Parthicopolis, 
now Sandanski, in situ. Photo: S. Petrova.

Figure 30
A composition with birds from the 
Metropolitan basilica in Philippopolis, now 
Plovdiv, in situ. Photo: E. Decheva-Kantareva.



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   333

period (Boev 2018).  Such koine of visual mixture and the loss of the previously 
fixed places of the different spheres can be observed also in the pavements of 
the private domuses in Philippopolis and AugustaTraiana (Pillinger et al. 2016: 
taf. 20; taf. 304-305; taf. 315-316; taf. 102-103; Topalilov 2020a: figs. 22, 24), 
including even craft tools, fruits etc. (Fig. 31). These facts witness of the final 
disintegration in the third long period of the previously clear cosmologic picture 
of the world in the lands of Thracia, Macedonia and Dacia Mediterranea.

The last general feature of the third period is the specialization on definite 
images, combinations of fauna and flora representations (birds and baskets, or 
birds and fish with branches and flowers) in each province. For instance, very 
rich is repertoire of the workshops shown in the basilicas of Parhicopolis in 
Macedonia I (Popova 1981; Boev 2020). It consists of definite types of water 
birds and freshwater fish and liturgical vessels (Fig. 29), probably due to 
the numerous rivers and big lakes on the way down to the Aegean Sea. But 
in the metropolitan basilica of Philippopolis the fish is totally missing: in the 
pavements of the 3rd layer only the birds are represented, while in the last fourth 
ones they are together with baskets. At the same time, the seashore cities of 
Greece demonstrate mosaics with sea fish and the sea fisherman.

The ornithologists guess on the pavements many modern species, but also such 
ones that already do not exist (Boev 2018; Boev 2020). It is also established 
that by the trade of animals, birds and fish, the habitation of some of them 
has been changed since Antiquity, and moved from Africa and the Near East 
to the north of the Mediterrainean and even to the South and Central Europe. 
The most obvious case is with the parrots, but also with other exotic birds, fish 
and desert animals. This means that man has begun to change the world from 
ancient times, acting like God, and moving and putting the plants, animals, birds 
and fish in quite a new milieu and new areas of the earth, not habitual to them 
to that moment. This was a new although small-scaled cosmogonia in reality, 
created not by the Christian god, but by the Late Antique man. Concerning the 
LA pavement mosaics, this has widened the picture of the terrestrial and ocean/
fresh water-sphere, showing exotic species either not common for the Balkans, 
its images copied from the pattern books (of the type of scientific descriptive 
illustrated catalogues), or moved really here by very complex trade routes from 
South Africa and the Near and Far East to the Mediterranian basin and Europe. 

So up to the middle of 5th century, the figural motifs are introduced first in a 
full volume (see also the personification of Eirene in the residence of the 
metropolitan of Philippopolis, Popova 2021). But after the Justinianic period, 
the figural art diminished significantly to formal signs-universalia. In both cases 
the new repertoire of the third period is a koine of mosaic iconographic language 
not only in the Late Antique provinces of Bulgaria, but generally in the Eastern 
Mediterranean (on the Balkans, on the Aegean islands and in Asia Minor and the 
Near East).

The Reasons for Omitting the Figural Art in the Central and Eastern 
Balkans  
In the next passages will be made the first ever attempt to explain why the 
mosaicists (and the painters) in the ancient provinces of the Central and Eastern 
Balkans were borrowing ready, adapted and not full cosmologic representations 
for the Christian Universe, not depicting the act of cosmogony, and avoiding 
figural images, especially in anthropomorphic form.

Figure 31
Part of the mosaic from Late Antique villa 
urbana in Stara Zagora, removed to the 
Regional Historical Museum. Drawing of K. 
Kalchev.



334    Vania Popova

1. The main explanation is very obvious: these lands in pre-Roman times had no 
monumental arts of the kind of sculpture and mosaics. The Thracian Classical 
and Hellenistic arts were mainly decorative and representative, serving the 
Thracian king’s aristocratic ideology and cults, with the very special view on 
the Afterlife and the rituals of its achieving (Marazov 2005). In the Thracian art 
dominate the animals’ representations (‘the animal style’) and the ornament. The 
anthropomorphic form penetrated slowly in the Thracian art by the Hellenization, 
demonstrating coarse and adapted volumes, disproportions and ornamental 
treatment of any possible details. The same process has been repeated once more 
in the Roman times with the Romanization, but this time the monumental arts 
advanced easier and in more types and spheres, including the introduction of 
mosaic art. The first mosaic pavements appeared at the moment of urbanization 
of the previous Thracia, which had been included in the Roman empire in 46 AD 
and turned to several Roman provinces. This process happened most of all at the 
end of 1st - beginning of 2nd century in the public and cult buildings, the private 
villas urbana and the big sub urbana domains. The local mosaic workshops 
have been created from the second half of 2nd century onward.  All the mosaic 
art was borrowed from the Roman culture with the help of Italian masters, but 
also with the help of itinerant Greek and Asia Minor mosaicists working in the 
Balkans. While they delivered the best samples of their figural mosaic art, the 
local masters preferred the geometric-ornamental compositions, even in the 
4th century (see Topalilov 1922; Topalilov 2016). This explains why the rich 
and more complete figural cosmologic visions appeared in the LA provinces 
of the Central and Eastern Balkans as foreign product, different from the mass 
aniconical local monuments.  

2. The second reason is hidden in the fact that up to the Tetrarchy the local 
Christian ecclesias were not so active and the penetration of Christianity here 
was weaker and slower in comparison to the Near East, Asia Minor, the cities 
and towns alongside the Via Ignatia road, the Western Balkans, in Rome and 
generally in Italy. The persecutions during the Tetrarchy in the Balkans revealed 
that the Christians were mainly in the Roman army, in most cases of non-local 
Thracian origin, also from the milieu of the craftsmen-settlers and the artisans 
from Greece, Asia Minor, and rarely from some local aristocratic and magistrates’ 
families. Except the names of some bishops descending from the diocese of 
Thracia and taking part in the church affairs in Rome and Constantinople, the 
only famous names of theologians are belonging to Ulifila/Wulfila (who lived in 
in Novae and Nicopolis ad Istrum), to Niceta of Remesiana and to Domnion, the 
bishop of St. Sophia in Serdica, thought to be the spiritual mentor of Justinianus 
I (Динчев 2014: 57-58). The data on Niceta of Remesiana and his baptizing, 
teaching and writing to the last pagans in the Rhodope mountains is confirmed 
by the very impressive discoveries in Perperikon. But in comparison to Greece, 
Asia Minor and Italy, no other bishops and theologians in the studied lands 
have created or developed any influential teaching on the complex problems 
of Christianity, including the cosmogony and cosmology. This was reflected 
in art which was taking advantage only of ready imported images, borrowing 
iconographies, more or less complete picture and separate components of the 
Christian Universe and God, developed in the biggest theological and artistic 
centers of the Mediterranean. The two capitals, Rome and Constantinople, and 
also Thessaloniki, Athens and many other famous and active theological and 
artistic centers were sending constant impetuses on the diocese of Thracia and 
Illyricum, including the visions on the pavements and the not preserved, but 
existing wall cosmologic mosaics (Pépin 1964; Grabar 1988). The influence of 



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   335

the Eastern representations and the Western Italian ones can be followed better 
in the liturgy itself (Топалилов 2016), and obviously in the tomb painting, 
distributed on the walls and the ceiling/the vaults clearly into three zones 
(Pillinger et al. 1999). The Hell is not shown, but denoted as if under the plinthus 
or near to it; the middle terrestrial sphere with the humans, and all the gifts of 
earth and ocean created by God, the four horizontal directions, four seasons 
etc.; the heavenly one with several skies (3, 7, or 9, depending on the source 
and the ancient author), with the sun, moon and stars; then follows the garden 
of the Paradise, and above all is God. He is not shown neither in the tomb wall 
paintings, nor on the pavement mosaics, but symbolized through the archangels, 
the Paradise garden, its railing, the liturgical vessels and the Cross/Crismon. 
So, the kind of the cosmologic picture appearing in Illyricum and Thracia was 
parallel to the picture given also in the tomb wall paintings, and borrowed from 
the same theological, cosmologic and iconographic sources of art.   

From this aspect, the territory of the ancient provinces of Bulgaria is not 
monolithic. In the western provinces (both Daciae and Macedonia I), in Ratiaria, 
Bononia, Storgosia, Pautalia, Serdica and Parthicopolis in the first studied period 
can be observed a very strong influence generally of Italy. The schemes and 
iconographies of the monuments of Rome, Ravenna, Aquileia and Milano, and 
also of the Latin language are obvious. Generally, the forming of the papal 
vicariate in Thessaloniki played a decisive role for the early development of 
the official Christianity in the LA provinces of Bulgaria, for the influence here 
of the initial Roman liturgy, and for the forming of Thessaloniki into the most 
important artistic and theological center in North Greece and Southwestern 
Balkans. Through the cosmologic visual tradition of the Italian artistic centers 
and concretely of the papal vicarius in Thessaloniki, the representations of the 
universe of the kind of St. George in Thessaloniki and generally the pavement 
monuments of Western Bulgaria have been created. Especially strong is the 
influence of the Italian wall and vault mosaics on the pavement mosaics in the 
apse compositions and on the repertoire of the baptistery pavement mosaics. In 
these cases, we also see the influence in the repertory and style of the Italian 
monuments on the pavement mosaics of the cited western provinces of Bulgaria. 
This combination of the tradition of the leading Western artistic centers with the 
efforts of the newly appeared ones in the LA provinces of Bulgaria reveals new 
but quite limited proto-iconoclastic variants of the cosmologic picture of the 
Early Christian universe. 

On its turn, Constantinople and its liturgy, architecture and art played a decisive 
role for Thracia, Rhodope, Haemimontus, Macedonia I and Scythia officially 
after the Chalcedonian Council in 451, but in fact already from the period of 
Theodosius I onward. The mosaic pavements of the cited provinces are closely 
connected with the official monuments of Constantinople, still not found or not 
preserved, and this fact is important as reflection of the development and forms 
and style in the capital. In the Balkan provinces can be also distinguished the 
presence of metropolitan mosaic workshops or its influence on the local mosaic 
pavements, expressed in its excellent palace style, the richer repertoire, the 
treatment, palette and sometimes even technically (Popova 2022b). 

3. Most probably the Arian trend of the Constantinian dynasty and the 
Valentinians, with the exception of the time of Julian, also played a definite 
role in the limited not only cosmologic, but general lack of figurative art in the 
pavement mosaics up to the end of the earlier Theodosian period. The official 
Christianity began namely during the period of Constantine I, and some areas of 



336    Vania Popova

Thracia are known as Arianic (Philippopolis and Augusta Traiana). Arianic was 
also the Gothic population of Novae on the Danube, Storgosia etc. in present 
North Bulgaria, especially in the second half of 4th century. In part of the Arianic 
Christian art also dominated the non-figural representations. It is very interesting 
that namely in Philippopolis and Augusta Traiana-Beroe can be observed the 
rich figural exceptions in the pavement mosaics. In this case, from one side it 
can be accepted that in 4th century in Thracia there existed a kind of tolerance 
among the representatives of the different Christianities. But on the other hand, 
it seems more plausible that it may be a reaction of the more learned magistrates, 
rich owners and craftsmen-settlers from Greece and Asia Minor to the demands 
of the Arianic bishops at that moment, either there has been appointed a new 
praetor or magistrate, supporter of the classicizing mosaic figural art. Except the 
Arianism, other heresies as the Monophysites, the Gnostics, the Nestorians etc. 
(Barnard 1974; Solovieva 2010) continued from 4th till the end of LA, and this 
also had its reflection on the strong limits and in some periods, even prohibition 
of the figural art.
4. The concept of the church building as representing the Early Christian 
Cosmos is the next important circumstance playing a new decisive role in the 
development both of the pavement and the wall and vault mosaics from the period 
of the Constantinian rule onward. Most of the Christian figural representations 
were moved by the new concept from the floor to the walls, conchs, ceilings 
and vaults. In this situation, the representations in the west part of the aisle 
should denote the earth and the ocean with its flora and fauna; the ambo was 
the mountain, the walls and the columns – the church fathers. The chancel, the 
conch, the apse and the vault in gradation symbolized the celestial sphere, the 
heavens, the paradise and the supreme sphere of God with his entourage. In this 
way, after the end of the first period, the pavement mosaics could not represent 
the complete cosmologic picture, but only its terrestrial and oceanic or fresh 
water-parts, with the seasons, the four horizontal directions, the most important 
of them now in direction to the East, to Jerusalem and upward, to the supreme 
sphere of God. 
5. The politics of Theodosius I toward the church, aiming to restore the 
Orthodoxy of the Nicean Creed after the long dominance of the Arianism and 
some other heresies, was the next important historical circumstance. Namely 
during his early reign, the figural representations disappeared totally, because 
there have arisen quite new requirements to the vast surfaces of the church 
buildings, imperial palaces, residences and public buildings. There appeared 
the necessity of creating unity of the mosaic surface and the church space in 
concordance to the Early Christian liturgy, rites and cosmologic vision. For the 
first time united mosaic surface in the churches has been created with the usage 
of purely ornamental-geometric compositions, formed by the module consisting 
of equal and repeating geometric schemes with inner fillings, treated more or 
entirely flatly. They create not a ‘patch-work’ of different and not fitting each 
other schemes in one room like in the previous periods, but one scheme in one 
room (or in the important part of it), with accents following the movement of the 
serving priest to the chancel, to the stops in front of the ambo, the chancel, the 
altar, the crypt, of the laity to both aisles etc. In fact, the first samples appeared 
earlier, in the period of the Tetrarchy,14 when the new style formed a module 

14 The first successful attempts have been done already in the period of the Tetrarchy according to the 
opinion of P. Assimacopoulou-Atzaka in all the late volumes of the Corpus of mosaics of Greece 
and in her later articles. The new decisions have been demonstrated by the mosaics in the palace of 
Thessaloniki and the palace of Romuliana, and further developed in the church architecture namely in 
the Theodosian period.  



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   337

with a flat non-figural filling and colour and changing background. The newly 
created puristic mosaic style during the time of Theodosius I, without any 
figural representations or with few only Early Christian symbols (connecting 
the horizontal/the floor sphere with the upper spheres of Heavens, Paradise and 
God), continued and developed further this new decision of the flat and united 
mosaic surface answering the new demands of the Christian religion. In this 
way they got rid of the pagan nude representations, with few exceptions: the 
mythological winds, seasons and months and its attributes in the form of xenia 
(animals, flowers, fruits and vegetables) or farm and craft activities typical for 
each season. Thus, the main aims of the Christian religion, its liturgy and rituals 
have been fulfilled, and a new synthetic style and treatment created. In it each 
sphere of the universe has obvious boundaries, and there is Order and Fixation 
in the place and in the succeeding of the different spheres created by God, 
habitations etc.

6. From the Valentinians to the end of the Theodosian dynasty, prohibitions 
have been proclaimed the holy symbols and images not to be represented on the 
floors, in order not to be stepped over and profaned. In the studied area they are 
usually some exclusions, especially in the milieu of the Arians. But generally 
the rules have been followed, because they further fixed the place of each sacred 
scene or sign of the cosmologic sphere. The change happened further in 6th 
century, when, for instance, the cross appeared on the pavement mosaics in some 
Justinianic basilicas and on the coins, copying the symbolic of the Sepulchral 
in Jerusalem. By that the sacred sphere with a kind of a new omphalos, the 
Heavenly one answering the earthy Jerusalemic one was denoted in the general 
cosmologic picture. By that the Christian symbol finely replaced the previously 
used earthy representations as anthropomorphic forms, animals, birds, fish, fruits 
and vegetables, standing for each sphere. The Christian sign became capable of 
expressing all meanings, representing each level of the cosmologic structure. 

The listed six reasons seem to be the most important ones for the development 
of the limited, adapted and proto-iconoclastic repertoire in the cosmologic 
representations on the LA pavement mosaics from Bulgaria. In the time 
they may coincide, but also succeed each other independently. The result is 
inseparable fusion of them, strengthening the proto-iconoclastic trend from 4th 

up to the middle of 5th century. However, from then to the Justinianic period 
the figural art has been re-introduced on a great scale, with accent on the apse, 
conch, wall and vault. The floor is left for the creatures of the terrestrial and 
water spheres, represented only up to the entrance of the cancel and the new side 
rooms, oratoriums and chapels. The fixed places of each sphere already do not 
exist, and a new visual language of ‘koine’ repertorium has been created in the 
two final periods. The symbols, the figural representations and the cosmogonic 
elements are mixed in it, without order. During the second and third period the 
typical repertoire is created for some provinces, as the river-birds and river fish 
in Macedonia or a mixture of baskets, fish, birds, cages, nests etc. At the end of 
6th –beginning of 7th century, the cosmologic earthy representation gave place 
to the formal Christian signs capable of expressing the formal picture of the 
Christian world. 



338    Vania Popova

Conclusions  
Very different artistic influences and masters have been involved in representing 
the cosmologic picture in the studied provinces: Italian and Eastern maters, 
Goths and many other Barbarian representatives and non-Romans as the Jews 
of the diaspora and from Palestine. Most often when the cosmologic picture was 
fuller and richer, they were Syrians from the Near East and Greeks from Asia 
Minor. At the same time in LA, the local masters were using either aniconical 
floor mosaics or limited separate cosmologic elements, most often the seasons in 
anthropomorphic form, xenia or pairs of animals. The vegetables, fruits and the 
fish and other marine creatures are also preferred. The masters were descending 
from different religions and denominations reflected on the world-view and 
the figural art. The crossed artistic influences and the belonging to different 
religions of the clients and the artisans have strongly complicated the cultural 
processes concerning the figural art, especially the difficult as iconography and 
schemes cosmologic picture. The result is that it looks like as a branchy tree, 
concerning both the number of participants and the complexity of borrowing, 
understanding, transmitting and making its own copy of Pagan, Early Christian, 
Syrian, Jewish, Barbarian, Arianic, Monophysite etc. world-view by different 
cultures on different levels.

Generally, it can be distinguished the influence of the Italian LA mosaic strongly 
expressed in the whole 4th century, and after 451 mainly in Dacia mediterranea, 
in the supposed mosaic of Orpheus from Ratiaria, the harbour scenes along the 
exedra in the villa of Filipovtsi, in the apse mosaic of the martyrium of Serdica 
and the apse mosaic of the basilica of Bitus in Pautalia. The Greek, the Syrian and 
Near East influence was traditionally strong in the lands of Thracia, especially 
Philippopolis and Augusta Traiana and the Black Sea littoral, especially 
Odessos, from the second half of 4th century increasing its intensity and strength 
of influence. Namely its mosaics reveal the almost full cosmogonic picture, rich 
figural and non-figural art, good technique, and some LA mosaic masterpieces. 
Also traditionally, one among the many South and Eastern Mediterranean 
mosaic workshops with specialization on marine scenes with rich fauna and 
mythological participants has created the marina with erotes from Philippopolis.

The cosmologic notions and art during the Constantinian, Theodosian, Justinianic 
and Post-Justinianic period were the main stages of creating new world-view 
and expressing its cosmologic components. After the accept of Christianity 
as official religion and till the end of the Theodosian dynasty, new rules have 
been created according to the new concept of the church building as symbol of 
the Christian Universe. The pavements were deprived of the holy scenes and 
representations, and only the terrestrial and water ones could be placed on the 
floors of the churches, with the flora and fauna of the Earth and the Ocean and 
the seasons, months and seasons’ farm activities  could be shown. The new aims 
of creating united surface for the Early Christian liturgy without the fleshy pagan 
representations have caused the appearance of the mosaic module and almost 
the total lack of figural art and of the cosmologic picture for a certain period. 
In the middle and late Theodosian period, the figural code passed through a 
gradual further transformation omitting the animal one, leaving only the birds 
and the floral one. The Pagan Underworld or the Early Christian Hell are rarely 
symbolized as battle between two animals or between bird and snake. God and 
the sphere of heaven is also never shown on the floor but symbolized in the most 
imported from liturgical aspect parts. The accent in the floor mosaic decoration 
is put on these parts and the joyful picture of the Paradise with its pleasures 



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   339

and everlasting life. The Christian symbolic language has replaced up to the 
end of 6th century the figural one and changed to a formal non-figural one. In 
the tomb wall painting we can see also the Earth symbolized by the plinthus 
imitating marble or similar wall revetment. The hell is never main, and its rarely 
representatives in the form of snakes etc. are small-scaled and lost in the scheme.
Generally, only in rare cases we can see a rich cosmologic picture, it is almost 
always limited, without the winds, the four rivers, the months etc., compared 
with the contemporary mosaics from Italy, Greece, Turkey and Albania. Тhe 
subdivisions on macrocosm and microcosm are also generally missing in the LА 
pavement mosaics and tomb murals in Bulgaria, because the figurative art in the 
anthropomorphic form is often lacking at all or episodically represented. This 
phenomenon can be traced well also in the tomb wall paintings in the Balkans 
and reveals one and the same iconographic, visual and theological sources. 
Some of them are obviously connected with known heresies, others with the 
presence of itinerant masters from some big artistic centers, third ones with the 
official prohibitions.

In the third period the boundaries among the spheres and its fixed places finely 
disappeared, the representations became mingled and spread everywhere, equal 
in size and position to the important Early Christian symbols. They were in 
mixture, in a kind of koine, with specifics in each area or province. On the base of 
the figural art and the more or less full cosmologic picture, in the Balkans can be 
distinguished the Macedonian group, the Western group of Dacia Mediterranea 
and Dacia Ripensis, the Constantinople group with its hinterland in Thracia and 
Rhodope, the Western Black Sea littoral-group, the Goth’s group, spreading 
from Crimea up to the cities on the Lower Danube etc.

The only different period was that of Justinian I, when the emperor conquered 
back Italy for some period, and one can observe the same vision of the universe 
in the Western Empire and the Early Byzantium. Then the liturgy was changed 
by many novelties; the demands to it changed too; the Latin was dominating 
naturally in the official spheres everywhere, while the Greek was prevailing in 
the Eastern parts of the Balkans in the everyday life. The new period created a 
new brilliant picture of the world, but it was a picture created for the emperor and 
the aristocracy in Constantinople by the flattering authors like Procopius in his 
official works. In reality, the time of Justinian I was accompanied and followed 
by periods of great crisis in the general vision of the universe, differently to the 
official position, with numerous natural disasters, constant Barbarian invasions 
and waves of plaque. The Justinianic ‘Renaissance’ of arts and architecture was 
marking only the last upsurge before the final falling of many lands, part of Early 
Byzantium, under the constant and non-stoppable invasions and catastrophic 
earthquakes.

At the end of 6th - the beginning of 7th century, all these circumstances caused 
demographic, economic, military and partly political catastrophe for the second 
time after the death of Valens. In this connection, at that period the world-view 
on the Cosmos and the contemporary very dynamic and dangerous times has 
changed, and the previous harmonious image has been ruined. In the first and 
the second studied period the whole cosmologic picture was picturesque, jolly, 
optimistic, with the Christian spirit of enjoining the fruits and the beauty of the 
paradise, eternity and timeless. God, although invisible, is mystically blessing 
the living and the resurrected persons. This is an idealistic and naïve joyful 
image, not full as structures and its succeeding, omitting the real presence of 
God, with no presence or small presence of the Devil and the personification of 



340    Vania Popova

the Demons.

Immediately after the Iustinianic period, the art in the Balkan has changed, it 
became more formal, schematic, heraldic, with the dominance of the Christian 
signs and almost without pure figural representations. The figural images 
disappeared again in significant part of the mosaic pavements of the basilicas, 
replaced by ornamental-geometric opus sectile and pure geometric compositions 
in opus tesselatum. The subject of the Crucifixion with painful moods has been 
introduced generally in art, and there disappeared the joyful perception of the 
Christian narratives and the world-view. The previous naïve picture was replaced 
by heavy or schematic formal compositions.      

In the aspect of cosmogony and cosmology, the provinces of Thracia, Macedonia, 
Dacia, Scythia etc. have been receiving actors in the drama, while Byzantium 
and Italy were the donors. But even Byzantium and Italy with its millennium 
classicizing culture and arts could not develop it further at the end of Late 
Antiquity. In this Late period, the mass invasions of many foreign tribes, people 
and new political-military unions changed the actual picture of the contemporary 
and very dynamic period. The limited or depicted only by crosses cosmologic 
picture of the universe proofs that the Central and Eastern Balkan lands could not 
develop it further, this was its natural limitation. Only the beginning of the new 
Early Medieval period could create a new picture on the ground of the synthesis 
of the Late Antиque culture and the newly appeared tribes and people in Europe. 
The East Roman Empire, now known as Byzantium, also had to go through a 
total transformation of its culture and art, enriched by the new barbarian Asiatic, 
European and Near-Eastern cultures. That historical changes and the existence 
of heresies explain the limits and the proto-iconoclastic trends of the Roman 
and Late Antique periods in the Central and Eastern Balkans not only in the 
cosmologic picture, but generally in the whole Late Antique art and culture.                                                  

                                        

      



Cosmologic Representations on the Late Antique Mosaics from Bulgaria / Bulgaristan’daki Geç Antik Çağ Mozaiklerinde Kozmolojik Temsiller   341

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