499 © 2012 Triveni Enterprises J. Environ. Biol. Vikas Nagar, Lucknow, INDIA 33, 499-508 (2012) editor@jeb.co.in ISSN: 0254-8704 Full paper available on: www.jeb.co.in CODEN: JEBIDP Historical development of environmental education in Bulgaria Author Details Abdullah Soykan Department of Geography, Balikesir University, 10145 Balikesir-Turkey Emin Atasoy Emin Atasoy, Uludag University, 16059 Nilüfer, Bursa, Turkey Zdravka Kostova Department of Information and In-service Teacher Training, Sofia University, 1619 Sofia, Bulgaria (Corresponding author) e-mail: zdravkakostova@yahoo.com Abstract The article discusses the periods of environmental education (EE) development in connection with internal Publication Data social and global international influences, mainly the effect of the First United Nations Conference on Human environment in Stockholm 1972, the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and the 2002 Earth Summit in Paper received: Johannesburg. It pays attention to the impact of the social background and the role of science and pedalogical 5 November 2010 research on the different stages in the curricular and textbooks development. The school subjects‘ contents and educational technologies also evolved towards student-centered interactive education in school and out of Revised received: school. A system of EE from nursery to postgraduate and lifelong education was developed in 1984 and a 12 July 2011 great part of it has been introduced in the different educational stages since then. After 1989 more than 132 NGOs and communities on ecology and environmental education were established and many others incorporated Accepted: environmental education aspects in their activities. Still there are many unsolved problems in EE. 30 July 2011 Key words Environmental education, Curricular and textbooks, International collaboration, Bulgaria Introduction strengthening its effect on the quality of the environment itself as well Environmental education (EE) has a long history in Bulgaria. as on the quality of education as a whole. It started far away in the past embedded mainly in Bulgarian folklore Materials and Methods and literature. Later on it continued as practical education in the school gardens and forests through the environmental societies The study was carried out periodically for several years and movements. The definition of ecology and ecological approach (2003, 2005 and 2008) and was mainly based on content and to biology were first introduced in the courses of zoology at the comparative analyses of school programs, textbooks, journals, University level (Kozarov, 1956) and in a textbook of zoology for scientific papers, books and dissertations, reports at conferences as the secondary school (Paspalev, 1962). The industrialization of well as personal experience and observation. Bulgaria caused the extermination of a few species from our biological diversity and some soil erosion due to construction was evident Results and Discussion (Boev, 1970). A chapter on “Fundamentals of Ecology”, including Periodicity in international development of EE and its some notes about conservation of nature, was introduced for the resonance in Bulgaria: Internationally, history of EE can be divided first time in the biology textbook of the secondary school (Kostadinov, into three periods on the basis of UN summits, which outlined global 1975) and since then EE has been increasing in scope, aims, strategies for human-nature interactions and for corresponding contents, educational technologies, scientific research and changes in EE (Table 1). In the 60s of 20 th century, due to rapid monitoring. At the same time environment deterioration continued, advances in industrial development, marked negative changes were many species were endangered and included in the Bulgarian detected in the environment, which spread over the whole planet. Red Data Book. The present study aims to underline achievements The global impact of humanity upon nature induced the beginning and shortcomings in the development of EE mainly in secondary in the growth of global environmental awareness, which resulted schools of Bulgaria encompassing all children and to look for new in UN conferences and in corresponding curricula and challenges and possibilities for its further enforcement and for textbook changes in order to prepare young people for the coming Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Special Issue - Environment and Geography in the Mediterranean Guest Editors - Dr. Recep Efe, Dr. Munir Ozturk and Dr. Sumati Gaumat Online Copy 500 Soykan et al. Table - 1: Basic periods in global environmental policy and development of environmental education 1st period before 1972 2nd period 1972 – 1992 3rd period after 1992 till present till date Resources conservation and environmental UN Stockholm conference (1972); UNEP (1972); UN Earth Summit in Rio (1992); UN Summit in awakening, IUCN (1948), The Club of World Strategy for Conservation of Living Johannesburg (2002); Declaration of the Club of Rome (1968), The Limits to Growth (1972) Resources (1980); Our Common Future (1987); Rome (1996); EU Biodiversity policy; EU nature 1963: BSCS: Green, Yellow and Blue Contact (Newsletter of UNESCO); WWF; IUCN; legislation; World and EU strategy for sustainable Versions; Nuffield Foundation Science International Environmental Educational Program development; Agenda 21. Second World Teaching Project: Nuffield Biology (IEEP- 1975); Tbilisi conference (1977) and Conference in EE (1992); UNECE strategy for (1966, 1967) Moscow conference “Tbilisi + 10” (1987); First ESD (2005)Stokes, E. Edge, A. and West, A. World Conference on EE, Canada (1982); (2001); UNESCO: National strategies for SD and ESD, NGOs International scientific committee on EE of Eastern Europe Table - 2: Basic periods in environmental education development in Bulgaria 1st period before 1972 2nd period 1972 – 1992 3rd period 1992 – 2010 Nature reservations, forest creation, Biosphere and other types of reservations; Transition to trade economy; Closure of many industrialization and urbanization, chemicals Technologies for purifying air emissions and factories; Land and factory privatization; Increased in agriculture. waste waters; Nature conservation legislation; overexploitation of natural resources; Unemployment. Folklore, poetry, literature; newspapers, Research team on EE (NIER) (1972); International and NIER closed. NGO’s created; EE research at magazines; Nature study society (1896); national collaboration. A system of EE from nursery the Universities. Lots of new colleges and Union for nature protection (1927) till post-graduation and throughout life (1984). Universities. ESD. EE at the National palace of Children. New Journals In-school and out of school activities; curricula New curricula and textbooks in science education; New curricular and textbooks. Ecological and text book changes; practical and labour Traditional and new out of class and out of school education in biology and EE in all school subjects. activities; activities. EE in universities. EE curricular and courses in universities Table - 3: Development of environmental education in the Secondary school biology syllabi and programs Programs 1960 1973 1974 1984 1985 1991/7 Botany Zoology General biology: Biology from 5th to 10th Biology from 6th to 7th Biology from 8th to 12th Natural science for Human anatomy Fundamentals of grades. A chapter on grades. Conservation of grades. Chapters of ecology5th grade: A and physiology; ecology in 9th grade ecosystems in 7th grade; plant and animal diversity in 9th and 12th grades; chapter on General biology A chapter of ecology in 6th and 7th grades Biosphere and in 9th grade Biomes; Biology for 11th grade Ecological approach to biological systems in all programs and textbooks Revised school programs 2002/2003 5th grade 6th grade 7th grade 8th grade 9th grade 10th and 11th grades 12th grade Ecological Nature and Organisms and Unity of organisms Biosphere Ecological approach Biosphere approach Humans environment and environment challenges. Bulgaria adequately responded to these trends mainly First period in EE history in Bulgaria: Environmental education, in two ways: participating actively in the preparation and meant as love and care for nature, manifested itself in Bulgarian confirmation of the UNESCO documents and in the further folklore, poetry and literature. In ancient times up to 1878, when development and practical realization of the recommendations Bulgaria was established as an independent state, nature was (Table 1). regarded as a guardian and as a source of living and welfare. This worship continued up to the urbanization and industrialization in the Historical development of environmental education in 1960’s. Using anthropomorphism, folklore penetrated deep in the Bulgaria was influenced by both, international events, and national human soul and inspired moral consciousness. Priorities were given social, economic and cultural characteristics (Table 2). to moral categories as milestones of responsible attitude. Bulgarian Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy Environmental education in Bulgaria 501 Table - 4: Environmental education requirements, included in the State educational standards KOO Standard requirements: Students should be able to: Geography and economics Evaluate natural diversity and beauty of our planet. Explain the global problems, connected with nature conservation and rational use of natural resources and the environment. Explain the processes of global warming of the climate and the depletion of the ozone layer. Discuss the problems, connected with management of water, soil and biotic resources and solid wastes. Value the concept of sustainable development as a global strategy. Know the principles of ecological monitoring and understand its necessity. Develop school projects on geographic and economic topics. Understand and use GIS. Natural sciences and ecology Use scientific approach when solving problems from different areas of life. Develop environmental culture and aspiration for nature conservation. Distinguish structural elements and processes at different biosphere levels of organization. Explain the state of the environment using natural ecological laws and human impact. Classify and compare ecosystems, populations and organisms. Anticipate the outcomes from changes in the environmental factors and human pressure on environmental equilibrium. Describe the application and biological impact of nuclear radiation. Understand the use of thermonuclear synthesis in production of nuclear energy and in nature conservation. Prove the necessity of recycling of materials and use of nature friendly technologies. Table - 5: Environmental education aspects in primary and elementary school subjects 1st – 4th grades 5th grade 6th grade Social and school environment – roles and Characteristics of nature components, natural Africa, Atlantic ocean, South and North America, the responsibilities; nature of homeland, rules of resources, climate, natural zones on Earth, Arctic ocean: characteristics of nature components, behavior; healthy way of life; nature populations and settlements on Earth. Wise use resources of continents and oceans, population, conservation festivals and traditions; nature and of natural resources (geography). economy, continental and regional environmental historical landmarks; seasonal phenomena. problems, natural disasters (geography). Substances, bodies and organisms; natural Pollution, purification of water and air, biodiversity Heat pollution, conservation of the environment; resources: soil, ores, minerals, fuels; natural protection, classification of living things, nutrition, reproduction, growth, development, movement and phenomena, life processes, adaptation, respiration and excretion; hygiene of the body. irritability; human-environment relationships harmful substances, protection. (Man and nature). poets and novelists (G. Rakovski, L. Karavelov, Ch. Botev, P. nature protection was founded and jointly with the BNSS organized Slaveikov, I. Vazov, A. Konstantinov, E. Pelin, Y. Yovkov, and others) and lead the establishment of the first nature reservations felt deep admiration for the beauty and diversity of Bulgarian nature (Parangalitsa and Silkosia) and other types of protected areas. and instilled it in children and adults. Each family had to work for a week for communal prosperity – cleaning, planting trees, establishing gardens and parks, etc. (Petkov, In the period before the adoption of the Stockholm 1925). In 1936, the first decree regulating the use and treatment of Declaration, the Action Plan and the Resolution in 1972, Bulgarian nature and natural resources was passed. All that shaped the community was aware of the coming environmental changes from requirements for corresponding educational changes. At war times the information in the newspapers (Stupan – 1875, Macedonia – these activities nearly stopped but after them they burst with new vigor. 1869), magazines (Nature, Hunter, Nature and Science, Forester’s Thought, Nature Study and Geography, Young Tourist etc.) and After the second world war nature conservation became from personal experiences (Penev, 1975). The Bulgarian nature part of the labor education and training of children. Many eroded study society (BNSS), established in 1896, for more than hundred areas were planted with forests; water pipes renewed; parks and years has been organizing scientists, teachers and amateurs in gardens created; wooden “houses” for birds constructed and placed studying and protecting nature. The Ministry of education introduced in trees; feeding-troughs built. Simultaneously cognitive observations field trips and excursions for studying nature in the school curricula of animal behavior and plant development as outdoor activities (Velichkov, 1896, p. 339). Under teachers’ provocation, K. Velichkov widened and brought the necessity of collaboration of teachers with (1896, p. 465), the minister of education at that time, initiated circular scientists. School gardens were transformed into school learning letter to set up school gardens and school forests. Teachers’ training fields and school forest farms were started up. Schools were allotted courses at the vocational agricultural schools were organized, pieces of land for those activities. Wildlife and nature “festivals” were programs and teaching materials were prepared and regulations of regularly organized at which pupils demonstrated their learning prizes for the best school gardens to be awarded were adopted and practical achievements, concerning nature. In 1955, the Central (Velitchkov, 1896, p. 1149). That trend was maintained throughout and the Regional Stations of young agrobiologists were founded the following years (Vazov, 1898). Biology textbooks for secondary and out of door and informal environmental education received its and university education used ecological and evolutionary leadership and competent supervision. At the same time, vocational approaches (Altunkov, 1895). In 1927 the Bulgarian union for and production education prospered and all included care and Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy 502 Soykan et al. protection of nature. School societies for protection of birds and According to the 1973 school program, a new textbook for other animals, for plant species protection and cave life investigation the 9th grade was prepared and introduced (Kostadinov, 1975) that were initiated (Vesselinov, 1961; Tachev,1962). dealt with evolution, origin of Earth and life on it, historical development of all phyla and classes of organisms and fundamentals of ecology. The rapid industrialization and urbanization of the country The last chapter included abiotic and biotic factors, ecosystems, and the tourists expansion in the 60s of 20th century and onwards biocoenoses, biogeographical regions, the biosphere and man. alarmed scientists (Boev, 1970), teachers and ordinary people and The aim of biology education changed and human beings were evoked actions for rethinking education (Table 3), which started in regarded as components of the ecosystems. The journals, “Biology 1960 and continued to the present days. and Chemistry” (1957 – 1991), “Nature and Knowledge” (1950 – 2007), “Protection of Nature” (1974 – 1992), spread scientific and The biology syllabus of 1960 had the priority aim at didactic knowledge and experience among scholars, teachers and developing love and care for nature and natural resources. scientists. Articles discussed the structures and functions of Ecological approach was introduced and structure, functions and ecosystems, anthropogenic impact on them and measures for diversity of organisms were studied from the point of view of their avoiding or reducing it. adaptation to the environment. For each grade a separate textbook was prepared by different authors. There were no different versions A Chair of Landscape knowledge and environment of textbooks for a given grade. The aims of biological education protection at the Faculty of Geography and Geology (1973) and a stressed the abilities of human beings to conquer and manage Chair of ecology and nature conservation at the Faculty of Biology nature and thus put people outside and above ecosystems. Modern (1974) were established at Sofia University. Geography, geology poetry and literature at that time glorified the smoking chimneys of and biology students received a solid environmental education factories as signs of industrial development. (NIER, 1981a,b). General biology in the 9th grade dealt with classification and At the National Institute of Educational Research (NIER) evolution of the organic world and was called Darwinism. In the 10th in Sofia a team of scientists was organized in 1972 to investigate, grade, the biology course contained chapters on biochemistry, develop and guide the implementation of environmental cytology, genetics, individual development and reproduction. Two education. The team worked on a national as well as international books: “Silent spring” (Carson, 1962) and “Before nature dies” level in collaboration with research teams of Eastern countries (Dorst, 1965), awakened Bulgarian scientists and teachers to and with the Commission of education and communication of organize nature protection activities. IUCN. The international work started with preparation of a glossary of 123 special terms in seven different languages Achievements during this period were: 1) Very high (Russian, Hungarian, German, Czech, Polish, Bulgarian and competences, responsibilities and dedication to science of science Serbo-Chroatian), so that scientists from the collaborating professors and lecturers at the universities (most of them had countries could understand one another. The proper qualified abroad), who ensured a high qualification of teachers interpretation of terms in EE and the images they created for and thus a high scientific culture of the greater part of students; 2) other people in order to share them for effective communication Free access to education to all young people, who wanted to was worked out. The Bulgarian version was published first in study and were able to pass the entrance exams; 3) State-paid our country (NIER, 1978), but the complete dictionary in all the education; 4) Very well organized practical education in the open seven languages was published in Hungary the next year. The and in the laboratories; 5) Entrance exams of high standards at leader of the scientific team was academician I. D. Zverev (1979). the universities. Later on this idea was accepted and further elaborated in a new Disadvantages were connected with: 1) Not very adequate Glossary of environmental education terms (1983), containing equipment for experiments and research; 2) Banning of genetic 318 terms, by another scientific team. studies; 3) No alternative versions of textbooks; 4) No EE in The school biology syllabus was revised in 1974 and a chemistry and physics curricular and textbooks; 5) Lack of EE in universities, except for Biology faculties in Sofia and Plovdiv new educational reform started that used the experience and Universities. achievements of BSCS (1963, 1964) and Nuffield Foundations (1966, 1967). The study of living things was named biology in all Second period in EE history in Bulgaria: The UN’s conference secondary school classes from 5th till 10th grades. Plants and on the Human Environment in Stockholm, 1972 marked a turning animals were studied in 5th, 6th and 7th grades (two periods of 45 point in the development of international environmental policy. The min per 35 weeks in a school year). Twenty school periods at the declaration, containing 26 principles concerning the environment second half of the 7th grade were allotted to the study of ecosystems and development, the Action Plan with 109 recommendations, and (Table 3). For the first time lessons on ecology were introduced in the resolution, became a major guiding strategy for nature elementary school. The ecological approach to biology teaching management and for environmental education development. was applied in all classes. The biology textbook in the 9th grade Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy Environmental education in Bulgaria 503 Table - 6: Environmental education aspects in middle and high school subjects Biology and health education Chemistry and nature conservation Physics, Geography and economics Biodiversity, Classification and protection of Air, water and soil pollution, rational use of Effect of electrical current on the human body, sources of species, Five kingdoms (Monera, Protista, natural resources, physiological effect of noise pollution, biological effect of ionizing radiation, security Plants, Fungi and Animals – invertebrates), different substances and materials, useful andrules, radioactive rays, nuclear reactor. Asia, Indian ocean, extinct and threatened species from each taxon. harmful chemical processes, thermal effect, Australia, Pacific ocean, Oceania, Antarctic ocean: Organism and environment: Food interrelations, solutions of environmental problems, resources, climate, waters, biomes, organisms, population, habitat, adaptation, human influence on the security in the chemical laboratory settlements, eco-problems, disasters (7th grade) environment, human and environment (7th grade) hygiene (7th grade). Biodiversity, Animal kingdom – vertebrates. Organic and inorganic substances, water Thermal pollution and means of reducing it, safe transport, Human body: Structure, physiology, health and purification, first aid, sources of acid rains internal combustion engines and pollution. Europe, Balkan diseases. Hygiene of each body system and and their effects, environmental problems, peninsula, Bulgaria: Natural diversity, resources and rational first aid. Organism and environment: pollution from gaseous emissions, heavy use, relief, climatic zones, waters, population, trade Ecosystem, biodiversity, food chains and metals, fuels, fertilizers, recycling, economy, eco-problems and reservations (8th grade). food webs, cycle of matter. Humans as decomposition, friendly technologies part of nature (8th grade). (8th grade) Biosphere: Levels of biological organization, Biological effect of ion and, radioactive Noise pollution; production, transmission and use of energy, ecological factors, adaptations, populations, elements, cycles of nitrogen and carbon; ultrasound application in medicine. Earth ecospheres, intra and inter specific interactions, ecological pollution, treatment of harmful substances; resources, global eco-problems, risks and disasters, world niche, behavior, communities, ecosystems, Drugs and their lethal concentrations, first population and settlements, urbanization, world economy, biomes, biogeochemical cycles of matter aid in the chemical laboratory (9th grade) polarization and organizations, regional eco-problems, GIS, and flow of energy, ecological pyramids, demographic problems, sustainable development (9th). succession, and equilibrium, impact of human activity on nature. Biodiversity (9th grade). Multicellular organisms: Levels of organization, Thermo-effect of chemical processes; Ionizing radiation, nuclear power stations, infrared, individual development, heredity and variation, physiological effect of heavy metals; ultraviolet and X-Rays, thermonuclear synthesis, genotype, phenotype, environment, mutations, fuels. Nature protection: Global radioactivity. Geography of Bulgaria: Natural diversity and hereditary diseases. Biological evolution, environmental problems, methods of resources; population structure, density, migration, social struggle for existence, natural selection, purification, waste technologies, and demographic problems, economy and eco-problems, speciation, microevolution, macroevolution, recycling, purification of gaseous, sustainability (10th grade). anthropogenesis (10th grade). fluid and solid waste (10th grade). Cellular organization, genetic engineering, Fundamentals of qualitative and quantitative Thermal pollution, waste emissions, entropy, rational use cloning, cellular cultures, biotechnology, chemical analysis; Chemical monitoring of energy. World economy. Demography and GIS, migration, mutagenic factors, homeostasis of the environment (11th grade) urbanization, globalization and concepts in geopolitics, (11th grade). transnational corporations. Evolution: Micro- and macroevolution, gene Application of substances, fuels, Radioactive emissions, nuclear power stations, energy and pool, Biosphere: Organism and environment, pharmaceutical, toxic and lethal doses of pollution. Demographic problems and demographic populations, communities, ecosystems, substances, harmful effect of drugs, rational processes; regional development and demographic policy; biomes, cycles of matter and energy flow, use of natural resources, recycling, trade economy and competition; foreign investment policy; homeostasis, succession, productivity composting, waste and harmless regional economy. Economic polarization, world economic of ecosystems, biomes, noosphere. technologies, principles of purification of organizations, transnational corporations. New world order Rational use of natural resources; wastes, chemistry and nutrition, medicines, and conflicts. Bulgaria in the contemporary world. national and international regulations. polymers. Problems of nature Sustainable development (12th) Pollution and biological monitoring, global conservation; Analysis of the state environmental problems, sustainable of the environment (12th grade). development (12th grade) (Angelov, 1981) discussed intra- and interspecies interactions, The teachers’ guides for biology education, accompanying biocoenoses and ecosystems, cycles of matter and flow of energy, the textbook, addressed intellectual, emotional and psychomotor succession, biosphere and human impact on it and ended with spheres of personality and directed learning to the acquisition of nature conservation. The first ecology book for teachers, written knowledge, skills and attitudes (to the environment, to science and by Angelov (1981) was of great help for pedagogical practice, to intellectual and physical work). Eleven unifying themes were very soon was out of print and followed by a second revised formulated; three of them directly concerned the environment: “Unity edition in 1988. and diversity of the living world”, “Interdependence of organisms Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy 504 Soykan et al. Table - 7: Contents of reports on conferences (UB, 2003, 2005, 2007; UC, 2006: SU, BF, 2009) Union of biologists Conferences UC 2006 SU: BF 2009 Classification of reports: 1st- 2003 2nd 2005 3rd 2007 N % N % N % N % N % Environmental education 19 44.2 21 36.2 17 31 7 14.6 7 6.2 Health education 7 16.3 20 34.5 12 21.8 2 1.8 Education 16 37.2 13 22.4 23 41.8 41 85.4 10 8.85 Ecology 1 2.3 2 3.45 3 5.4 37 32.7 Molecular and Cell Biology 34 30.1 Biotechnology 10 8.85 Others 2 3.45 13 11.5 Total 43 100 58 100 55 100 48 100 113 100 and environment” and “Interdependence of all components of the of ecology, environmental problems and nature conservation in Biosphere”. This reform marked the first attempt to differentiate literature, Bulgarian language, mathematics, biology, physics, education into compulsory and facultative; two kinds of textbooks chemistry, geography, history, social studies and technical subjects were prepared – for the obligatory courses and for the optional as well as in all kinds of schools (NIER, 1975). Theoretical ones. The topic of homeostasis was introduced for the first time and recommendations were accompanied by development of educational a broader space was provided for EE. In 1981, a new educational technologies and practical teaching at the experimental schools of reform started from the first grade of the primary school, including the research team (NIER, 1977). Open experimental lessons were care for the environment and simple environmental notions. visited by the research team, discussed with the teachers and Programs were published and new textbooks prepared. improved. Guidelines, giving theoretical and practical assistance to Environmental problems were implicitly and explicitly introduced teachers were prepared, accompanied by collections of model and gradually developed from 5th to 12th grades. lessons, tried in the teaching practice (NIER, 1985). New textbooks for the 9th grade were prepared by two Difficulties arising from the interpretations of nature independent teams of authors using one and the same syllabus conservation concepts, were addressed by the research team and (Angelov, 1989; Ganev, 1989). It was very interesting and at the their clarification, classification and introduction in the school subjects same time very difficult for teachers and students. So far they were elaborated. The team developed a program, a teachers’ guide and used to one single textbook, very often memorized the information a workbook for an integrated course “Man and his surrounding and used to think and speak in the words and styles of the authors. environment”, which underwent practical trial and then was The necessity to compare, look for differences and similarities and introduced in schools (NIER, 1979). This course, enlarged and analyze definitions stimulated logical thinking. Authors also benefited correspondingly elaborated was adopted in universities, preparing from sharing visions and experience and from having feedback teachers and named “Man and Nature”. from teachers at the discussion and evaluation sessions after the trial of the textbooks. In the new textbooks, besides the chapters on Specialized courses on ecology and nature conservation ecology and evolution, two new chapters were included: “Adaptation either in master’s degree or in post graduate studies were introduced and behavior” and “Conservation and renewal of nature”. The in 22 High Institutes and Universities (NIER, 1981a,b) educational technology was enriched with laboratory exercises, A team of scientists, including professors and educators seminars, field trips, group work, discussions, school conferences from different disciplines, developed a unified system of environmental and presentations of papers (referati) by the students, now called education, culture and upbringing (value education) from nursery projects. The number of lectures, called lessons, was diminished throughout life (Kutov et al., 1984). Programs for teachers preparation and the participation of students – increased. at the universities and for their in-service training and qualification The annual meetings of the International team of experts were also developed and used by university lecturers (NIER, 1981a,b and 1983). A dictionary of ecology and nature conservation in EE of Eastern European countries and the biannual meetings of of 1800 terms was prepared for teachers and students and 19 this team with IUCN European experts in EE accompanied with scientists from different science disciplines took part in its development scientific symposia, were extremely beneficial for the exchange of (Kutov et al., 1984). That was a kind of environmental education for ideas and experience and for outlining the prospects for further the authors as many discussions, preceded by thorough analysis development and collaboration. The problems investigated and of lots of dictionaries, textbooks and scientific papers, had to take worked out were as follows: aims and objectives, principles, unifying place before the terms were accepted by all of them. ideas, ecological and environmental conceptual systems and their implementation in school curricula and in all school subjects. Concrete The first Didactics of biology (Bozarov et al., 1984) was guidelines were prepared for the implementation of different aspects published and a chapter on EE included. This comprehensive Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy Environmental education in Bulgaria 505 book summarized theoretical knowledge and practical achievements and French languages, studied the experience of other countries and provided professional help for teachers. Some teachers attended and developed their own creative teaching techniques. Teachers post graduate courses in EE at Sofia University “St Kliment Ohridski” dedicated efforts and time on EE, improved their professional and at the University of Plovdiv “Paissii Hilendarski”; others competences and qualifications. In-school and out of school activities, undertook didactic investigations and defended doctor’s dissertations. formal and non-formal education were coordinated by the Ministry of Education, National Institute of Educational Research and the A model of EE for a general secondary school was Central Station of Young Technicians and Agrobiologists (Kostovs constructed, which underwent a practical experimentation in many and Kutrovska, 1988; MESc, 1984). schools of the country (Kostova, 1985; 1988) and finally was revised, improved and subjected to further use and development (Kostova, Achievements in EE: (1) EE existed as a national policy, and a 2003). system of EE from nursery up, including university and post graduate studies was introduced; (2) EE was based on interdisciplinary Effective environmental teaching strategies with the help approach and educational reform was guided by scientists from of media and, especially of the pedagogical journals, reached universities and from Bulgarian academy of sciences with all schools and all teachers. That was stimulated by the two co-operation of teachers, parents and students, ensuring maximum International scientific symposia, held in Bulgaria (NIER, 1981b) help and freedom for creativity; (3) Scientists collaborated nationally and (NIER, 1988 and 1989), attended each by as many as and internationally; (4) Integrated courses and wide range of more than 400 participants from the country and from abroad. teaching styles, many of them new, were introduced; (5) Studies They were accompanied by exhibitions of students and teachers’ were differentiated into compulsory and optional; (6) Different forms achievements, open lessons and out of school activities. of teacher training and qualification were firmly developed; (7) EE Information about them was published in UNESCO’s Newsletter became part of University education. Connect (1981, 1988). The full reports of authors, presented at the first symposium were published in six separate collections: Some shortcomings and difficulties were the following: (1) 1) plenary session, 2) for university education, 3) for school There were some scientists and ordinary people who thought EE subject teaching, 4) for out-of-school activities, 5) for nursery redundant and in lack of time, omitted it from the programs; (2) children upbringing and 6) for youth organization and class Teachers had to be continuously trained and qualified as some left teachers’ lessons. The materials from the second symposium the profession and new unprepared came; (3) Lack of different were abbreviated and published in one collection (NIER, 1989; versions of textbooks for each grade, with the exception of biology Kostova, 1989). in the 9th grade, hindered the exchange of ideas and experience. Environmental clubs, nature trails, “Green patrols” for Third period in EE history in Bulgaria: The UN summits opened studying and protecting living environment, and “Blue patrols” fore new vistas for EE, giving priority to sustainable development and studying and protecting water, were initiated, supported and guided biodiversity protection. This period coincided with great changes in their work. That was very beneficial both for education and for affecting the economic and social life of Bulgaria and new vistas improvement of environmental quality. A Learning Ecological Station were sought for education as well. Research in EE was left to the was set up in the town of Assenovgrad, serving as an ecological responsibility of Universities. A National palace of children was school with “classrooms” in the open and helping students to “read” established in Sofia as a coordinator of out of school activities of the from the book of nature. Students acted in it as guides to the visitors Regional centers for learning, technical and scientific creativity. from the public and spread environmental knowledge among their regional centers for work with children and municipal children co-citizens. Nature trails were set up and used in environmental complexes were also opened. Clubs “Ecology, biology and education of many schools of the country. Ecological stations for environmental conservation” were being organized in these research and practice were set up for university students as well institutions, where children spend their out of school time learning (MESc, 1984). and playing. A very fruitful collaboration was established between New educational reform started, new publishers evolved, scientists, didactic researchers and teachers, which was supported new programs were prepared and a thorough work for reorganizing and promoted by different kinds of media. There was understanding and rethinking education began. For all grades, from 1th-11th, new and good constructive will between institutions with the great support textbooks were published in three or more versions for each grade, by the Ministry of Education. Annual National Ecology Olympiad answering the requirements of one and the same program, freely was set up and greatly stimulated teachers and students learning. interpreted by the authors. There were some differences between Theory and practice were united with beneficial effect for both of the versions of the textbooks. Teachers were left to choose the them. The National Library was subscribed for more than thirty version to study with the children that suited them best. Aims were international journals on ecology, nature conservation and EE, expressed in abilities that could be demonstrated and observed, most of which from western countries. Many teachers and university measured and assessed. Environmental education was centered scientists and students were able to use Russian, English, German in the 10th grade in order to be based on genetics. The topics of Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy 506 Soykan et al. “Plants and their environment” and “Animals and their environment” of plant protection and agro-ecology as well as agro-ecological were preserved in 6th and 7th grades. In 5th grade, new textbook, centre (Agrarian University), Faculty of ecology and landscape named “Nature study” was introduced centered on earth geospheres architecture (Forest-Technical University), Center of ecology (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere) and on (Chemistry-Technical Metallurgic University). Chairs of specialized biomes (MESc, 1997). Teacher’s guides, workbooks and test-books ecology at the University of Sofia “St. Kliment Ohridski” were also for self-assessment, accompanying each textbook, were prepared opened and now function effectively: Chair “Ecology and and published. Nature conservation aspects were included in the Environmental protection” (Faculty of Biology); Chair “Landscape textbooks of biology, chemistry, physics and geography. Suitable studies and environmental conservation” (Geologo-Geographical topics were developed for social science and technological education faculty), Specialty “Eco-chemistry” (Faculty of Chemistry). Other textbooks. universities introduced special forms of EE as well: Chair “Chemistry and ecology” and Specialty “Technique & Technologies for Much time was devoted to the construction of State environmental conservation” (Technical university, Gabrovo); Chair Educational Requirements, which laid the foundations for “Ecology & Environmental conservation” (Technical University, development of curricular, programs and textbooks. The state Burgas); Chair “Engineering ecology” (University of Nutrition requirements and the teaching materials were prepared in two technologies); Chair “Ecology & environmental conservation” levels – for a compulsory level and for a high level. Ecological and (Technical University, Varna); Chair “Earth Sciences and nature conservation concepts at present are well represented in environment” (New Bulgarian University, Sofia); Specialty “Ecology the Bulgarian school standards in the Cultural educational areas and Environmental conservation” (Faculty of Biology); Specialty (KOO in Bulgarian): “Natural sciences and ecology” and “Geography “Environmental Conservation” (Faculty of Chemistry) at the and economics” from 3rd to 12th grades of the secondary education University of Plovdiv “Paisii Hilendarski”; Specialty “Ecology and (State Newspaper, 2000). The State standards (Table 4) required Environmental conservation” (Universities in Rousse, Schumen inclusion of environmental and nature conservation aspects in school and Stara Zagora); Courses in environmental conservation, curricula and textbooks in the light of sustainable development. regional development and territorial planning (Southwest University in Blagoevgrad). Many research projects are also undertaken The school programs and textbooks answered adequately from all universities and they allow scientists to travel abroad, to the state standards and included topics dealing with ecology and welcome colleagues from other countries and to research human-environment relationships, starting from the first grade with environmental problems on a wider level. Boundaries are now the subject Homeland and continuing with The world around in the open for international collaboration, exchange of staff and of students second grade and Man and nature, Man and society in 3rd – 6th (Kostova, Atasoy, 2008, 2009; Erdogan et al., 2009). grades (Table 5). Many Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and In each grade the environmental education is laid on Nature protecting societies undertook the realization of projects aiming enlarged social and natural science foundations, which help students at EE of students and teachers as well as at improving the quality of to understand better the adverse consequences from human neglect the environment (NGO, 2005). Some of these projects received of the environment. Gradually the concept of sustainable financial support from other countries: USA, Netherlands, Germany, development encompasses all the aspects of EE giving them new Great Britain, European Union and others. Reference guide, perspectives (Table 6). Environmental and health education are programs & model lessons for primary schools and for teaching of closely connected and centered on nature and human life protection, biology, geography, chemistry, literature and history for secondary including students’ life as well. For each grade and for each subject schools in national parks were prepared, experimentally tried and three versions of textbooks from different authors were published published with the aid of GEF project for biodiversity in Bulgaria together with workbooks and teachers’ guides. (MESc, 2000). These trends are being continued, widened and improved, involving more and more teachers and students. Analysis of reports, delivered at recent conferences, shows a slight decrease in EE reports of biology teachers, due to the Advantages of this period: (1) State educational standards, invasion of information communication technologies (ICT) and including EE standards, were created, three versions of new computer assisted learning (CAL), a good start in the reports of textbooks for each grade published, learning and teaching materials chemistry teachers and increase in research of ecologists (Table and new interactive educational techniques developed; (2) Greater 7). Participation of teachers and students in ecological research is social engagement of schools is now visible, priority of sustainable bound to improve the effectiveness of EE, which requires a close development and international assistance of educational reform is collaboration between universities and secondary school. being certified. (3) Access to information via internet, CAL, ICT competences are expending; (4) EE courses and specializations Ecological and environmental education and training at the at the colleges and universities were established, life long education university level has gained firm achievements1. Faculties of and wide professional contacts are being reassured (Dimova, 2003; specialized ecology were established at some universities: Faculty Peycheva, 2007; NGO, 2005). Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy Environmental education in Bulgaria 507 Disadvantages: (1) Some good achievements from the previous References periods were forgotten and some environmental values as well; (2) Altunkov, N.R.: Nature study (Estestvovedenie). Plovdiv (1895). Economic and f inancial problems are increasing and Angelov, P.: Ecology. A book for teachers. State Publishing House, Sofia resources diminishing, but ecological economics is neglected; (3) (1981, 1988). Angelov, P., Zh. Ganev and N. Petrova: Biology. A textbook for the 9th Out-of-class and out-of-school activities are being neglected and class of the secondary school. State Publishing House, Sofia (1981). illiteracy is beginning to grow, etc. Fortunately, the new challenges Angelov, P., P. Popov, Z. Kostova, A. Boyadzieva and L. Boeva: Biology stimulate the community to look for new possibilities and solutions in for the 9 th class of the secondary schools. Prosveta, Sofia (1989). Boev, N.: Preface to Jean Dorst’ book “Before Nature Dies”. Zemizdat, EE. Sofia (1970). BSCS: Molecules to man. Blue version. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston EE in Bulgaria has developed as a result of interaction of (1963) national and international needs and theoretical and practical BSCS: Biology teachers’ handbook. (J. J. Schwab, Supervisor), John activities answering them. Our country copied developmental model Wiley and Sons, New York (1964). Bozarov, V., Zh. Ganev and Z. Kostova: Didact ics of biology. State and experience from industrialized countries and faced the same Publishing House, Sofia (1984). environmental problems. EE is being continuously developed, Declaration of the Club of Rome: April 25, Brussels, (1996) Retrieved 23rd involving gradually all school children, university students and January from http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/sociopolit ica/ teachers. Based on scientific research, it spread in all school subjects esp_sociopol_clubrome1.htm Dimova, D.: Education for sustainable development. J. Pedagogy, 13, and school activities. 18-30 (2003). Dorst, J.: Before nature dies. Zemizdat, Sofia (1970), (Original publication, Secondary education state standards, school curricula, Switserland 1965). programs, textbook and teaching facilities included ecology, Carson, R.: Silant spring. Zemizdat, Sofia (1969) (Original publication, nature conservation and sustainable development aspects. Houghton Mifflin 1962). European Subregional EE Seminar: Connect, 6, 8 (1981). Long lasting collaboration of scientists, teachers and students Environmental education in Bulgaria: Connect, 13, 5 (1988). was established throughout the years and had its beneficial Erdogan, M. , Z . Kostova and T. Marchinkovski: Components of effect on EE. Rethinking and improvement of education through environmental literacy in elementary science education curriculum educational reforms exerted innovations in contents and in Bulgaria and Turkey. Eur. J. Mathe., Scie. Technol. Edu., 5, 15-26 (2009). teaching methods and stimulated the development of EE and Ganev, Zh., M. Simeonovski, S. Gerasimov, R. Doychev, N. Petrova and ESD. Ts. Dimitrova: Biology. A textbook for the 9th class. State Publishing House, Sofia (1989). Together with the change of political and economic structure, Glossary of environmental education terms. International Environmental some good and productive practices were abandoned (out-of- Education Programme UNESCO-UNEP (Printed in Hungary by the National Centre for Educational Technology), Veszprem, 1983 school activities, school teaching fields, nature trails, school forests), Kostadinov, Zh, L. Gatsova, I. Yakov and Zh. Ganev: General biology for but new and more up-to-date ones have been developed. the 9th class of the English Language Polytechnical Schools. Sofia, Democratization and decentralization provided new challenges and State Publishing House (1975). stimulated new endeavors in EE. Kostova, Z. : Environmenta l education in secondary schools. State Publishing House, Sofia (1985). Kostova, Z.: Environmental education, research and practice in Bulgaria. Informational technologies and multimedia invaded schools, The Environmentalist, 9, 85-90 (1989). universities and homes, attracted due attention and provided new Kostova, Z.: (Ed.) Development of ecological consciousness in students. teaching and learning resources. They renewed the interest in the Narodna prosveta, Sofia (1988). environment but to some extent put a barrier between students and Kostova, Z. & Kut rovska, St. : (Eds.) EE and the pedagogical stuff (Ekologichnoto obrazovanie i pedagogicheskiyat kolektiv – model nature. lessons). MESc, NIER, 142 Secondary School, BNSS (1988). Kostova, Z.: Conceptualization of Environmental Education. Faber, Veliko The Integration of Bulgaria with the European Union Turnovo (2003). provided the possibilities for the development of new capacities in Kostova, Z. and E. Atasoy: Comparative evaluation of the environmental th EE and new challenges. In times of economic crisis we should be culture of 8 grade students in Bulgaria and Turkey. BJSEP, 2, 25-50 (2008). prepared to participate in problem-solving, using the best from the Kostova, Z. and E. Atasoy: Comparative assessment and self-assessment traditional, innovative, effective and adaptive approaches, knowledge of students’ environmental knowledge in Bulgaria and Turkey. BJSEP, and techniques in EE and in ESD. 3, 49-67 (2009). Kozarov, G., G. Paspalev, I. Vasilev, P. Mihailova and D. Bojkov: Zoology Acknowledgment for teacher training colleges. State Publishing House, Sofia (1956). Kutov, A. and Z. Kostova: Dictionary of ecology and nature conservation. The authors are grateful to Prof. Raicho Dimkov, Sofia University Partizdat, Sofia (1800 terms) (1984). “St. Kliment Ohridski” for reading the manuscript and offering some MESc (Ministry of Education): Interdisciplinary forms, methods and means improvements, as well as to Lilia Dulgerova for correcting the English of environmental education in the general and polytechnical schools in Bulgaria., Sofia (1984). language. We also thank Prof. Recep Efe for all the correspondence MESc: Instructions for the organization of the new school year in biology and guidelines for the improvement of the manuscript. education, Sofia (1997). Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy 508 Soykan et al. MESc: Biology: Programme and collection of teaching technologies for in- Revised school programs: For the subjects “The Human Being and Nature” school and out-of-school activities for nature protection education. and “Biology and Health Education”. J. Biol., Ecol. Biotech., 12, 6- GEF project for biodiversity in Bulgaria; ARD Ins., Burlington, Vermont, 76 (2003) Sofia (2000). State Newspaper, No 48, 13th of June. Decree No 2 from 18th of May 2000 NGO: A Programme to support the education for sustainable development on school contents from the Ministry of education and science (2000); in Bulgaria. Borrowed nature association and many others (2005). Revised in State newspaper, No 46 from 28th of May, under article NIER: A system of school contents for nature conservation. Sofia (1975). 10 of the Law of the level of education, the educational minimum and NIER: Forms and methods of teaching and bringing up of responcible educational curricula (2004). attitude to the surrounding environment in the general and vocational Stokes, E., A. Edge and A. West: Environmental education in the educational schools. Sofia (1977). systems of the European Union. Centre for Educational Research, NIER: A system of nature conservation concepts in education. Sofia (1978). London, School of economics and political sciences. Synthesis report. NIER: Man and the surrounding environment. Sofia (1979). (2001) Retrieved 26th January from http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ NIERa: Training and qualif icat ion improvement of teachers on nature youth/pdf/envedu_en.pdf conservation problems. Sofia (1981). Tachev, Ts.: Nature protection is a significant task of biology education. J. NIERb: International symposium, “Education and Nature Conservation”. Biol. Chem., 7, 24 (1962). (130 summaries of reports), Sofia (1981). UNECE: Strategy for education for sustainable development: Economic NIER: Training teachers in ecology. Sofia (1983). commission for Europe. Committee on Environmental Policy, Vinius. NIER: Didactic materials for the formation of ecological consciousness in (2005). students. Kostova, Z. and Panteleeva, M. (Eds.) MESc; NIER; UB (Union of Biologists): Bulgarian educational traditions and innovations in Central station of young technicians and agrobiologists; Committee biological education. Collections of reports. First National Conference, of nature conservation at the Council of Ministers, Sofia (1985). Pernik, 15-17 May (2003); UB (Union of Biologists): Biological st NIER: A system of environmental education in the secondary school and in education and the challenges of the 21 century. Collection of reports, nd teacher preparation. Collections of summaries of 68 reports. Insitute 2 National Conference, Burgas, Kvaazar, OOD (2005); UB (Union of Educational Research, Sofia (1988). of Biologists): Bulgarian biological education under European Union rd NIER: A system of environmental education in the secondary school and in conditions. Collection of reports, 3 National Conference – Varna, teacher preparation. Reports and papers for discussion in the meeting Azbuki-Prosveta, Sofia (2007). of experts. Sofia (1989) UC (Union of Chemists): ICT in chemistry education – a necessary Nuffield Biology: Text:: I-V, Teachers¢ guide: I-V. Longmans, Green and Co investment in the future of Bulgaria. National conference with Ltd., London (1966, 1967). international participation, 26-28 October, Varna (2006) Paspalev, G., A. Zaharieva and P. Kozleva: Zoology. A textbook for the 8th Vazov, I.: In the arrangement of school gardens. School Review, 3, p. 155 class of the english language polytechnical schools. State Publishing (1898) House, Sofia (1962). Velichkov, K.: For school excursions. Circular Letter No 3232 of the Ministry Peicheva, Y.: Environmental education and up-bringing in the system of of Education. School Review, 1, p. 339 (1896) technological education. University Publishing House, Shumen (2007) Velichkov, K.: Decree No 38: Rules for temporary training courses in Penev, A.: History of the movement for nature protection and of environmental agricultural schools in the towns of Sadovo and Ruse. Program of education. In: A system of school subject contents of environmental the material to be taught to teachers in the courses of school gardens protection. MESc, NIER, Sofia (1975). arrangement. School Review, 1, p. 465 (1896) Petkov, S.: Study of botany in mainstream schools in order to plant decoration Velitchkov, K.: Decree No 17201: In the arrangements of school gardens. and livelihoods in Bulgaria (Day of afforestation and protection of School Review, 1, p. 1149 (1896). natural plant communities). School Review, 24, p. 459 (1925) Vesselinov, G.: Protection of our nature. J. Biol. Chem., 4, p. 1-5 (1961) Revised school programs: For the subjects “The Human Being and Nature” Zverev, I. D. (Eds.): Glossary of environmental terms in seven languages. and “Biology and Health Education”. J. Biol. Ecol. Biotech., 11, 29- (Hetnyelvu kornyezetvedelmi szakszotar, ISBN: 963 681 036 2) 151 (2002) Orszagos Pedagogiai Intezet, Budapest (1979) Journal of Environmental Biology April 2012 Online Copy Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.